ASST.PROF. ROGELIO O. ALMIRA JR.

, PME
Machine Shop Lab. Supervisor
UST ME Batch 1991
 Thermodynamics 1

Mass, Weight, Specific Volume & Density;

Specific Weight, Pressure, Conservation of Mass
 Thermodynamics is that branch of
physical science that treats of various
phenomena of energy & related
properties of matter, especially of the
laws of transformation of heat into other
forms of energy and vice versa.
Newton’s law states that
“The acceleration of a particular body is directly
proportional to the resultant force acting on it and
inversely proportional to its mass.”

𝑘𝐹 𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎
a = F= k=
𝑚 𝑘 𝐹

k is a proportionality constant.
Systems of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
• cgs system: 1 dyne force accelerates 1 g mass at 1 cm/s2
• mks (SI) system: 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s2
• fps (English) system: 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s2

𝐠𝐦 ∙𝐜𝐦 𝐤𝐠𝐦 ∙𝐦 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠∙𝐟𝐭

k=1 𝐝𝐲𝐧𝐞∙𝐬𝟐
k=1 𝐧𝐞𝐰𝐭𝐨𝐧∙𝐬 𝟐
k=1 𝐥𝐛𝐟 ∙𝐬𝟐
Systems of units where K is not unity:
If the same word is used for both mass and force in a given
system, k is neither unity nor dimensionless
• 1lb force accelerates a 1lb mass at 32.174 ft/s2
• 1g force accelerates a 1g mass at 980.66 cm/s2
• 1kg force accelerates a 1kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2

𝐥𝐛𝐦 ∙𝐟𝐭 𝐠𝐦 ∙𝐜𝐦 𝐤𝐠𝐦 ∙𝐦

k = 32.174 𝐥𝐛𝐟 𝐬 𝟐
k = 980.66 𝐠𝐟 𝐬 𝟐
k = 9.8066 𝐤𝐠𝐟 𝐬𝟐
Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)
k = 1 kgm∙m / N∙s2 k = 9.8066 kgm∙m / kgf∙s2
Therefore, 1 kgm∙m / N∙s2 = 9.8066 kgm∙m / kgf∙s2
1 kgf = 9.8066N

Relation between pound mass (lbm) and slug

k = 1 slug∙ft / lbf∙s2 k= 32.174 lbm∙ft / lbf∙s2
Therefore, 1 slug∙ft / lbf∙s2 = 32.174 lbm∙ft / lbf∙s2
1 slug = 32.174 lbm
 A unit of force is one that produces unit
acceleration in a body of unit mass.

𝑚 𝑚
F = 𝑘a F = 𝑘a
1 poundal = (1 lbm) (1 ft/s2) 1 lbf = (1 slug)(1 ft/s2);
1 slug = 1 lbf∙s2/ ft2
F = force in poundals F = force in pounds
m m
k
= mass in pounds = mass in slugs
k
a = acceleration in ft/s2 a = acceleration in ft/s2
The mass of a body is the absolute quantity off
matter in it.
The weight of a body means the force of gravity Fg
on the body
m F Fg
= =
k a g

g = acceleration produced
by force Fg
a = acceleration produced
by another force F

At or near the surface of the earth, k and g

are numerically equal, so are m and Fg.
Sample Problem 1&2
1. What is the weight of a 66-kgm man at standard condition?
Solution
m = 66kgm g =9.8066m/s2
𝐦
𝟔𝟔𝐤𝐠𝐦 𝟗.𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟔 𝟐
Fg = mg/k = 𝐬
𝐤𝐠𝐦. 𝐦 =66 kgf
𝟗.𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟔
𝐤𝐠𝐟. 𝐬𝟐

2. The weight of an object is 50lb. What is its mass at standard condition?

Solution
Fg = 50 lbf g = 32.174 ft/s2
𝐥𝐛𝐦. 𝐟𝐭
𝐅𝐠 𝐤 𝟓𝟎𝐥𝐛𝐟 (𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟒 )
𝐥𝐛𝐟. 𝐬𝟐
m= = 𝐟𝐭 = 𝟓𝟎𝐥𝐛𝐦
𝐠 𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝟐
𝐬
Sample Problem 3
3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is
30.5 ft/s2 are as follows: m1 is 500g of mass; m2 weights 800gf: m3 weighs
15 poundals; m4 weighs 3 lbf; m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is the total
mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds and (c) in slugs.
Solution
ft
g = (30.5s2)(12 in/ft)(2.54 cm/in) = 929.64cm/s2

𝐠 ∙𝐜𝐦
𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝐠 𝐟 𝟗𝟖𝟎.𝟔𝟔 𝐦 𝟐
𝐅𝐠𝟐 𝐤 𝐠 𝐬
a) m2 = = 𝐜𝐦
𝐟
= 843.91 gm
𝐠 𝟗𝟐𝟗.𝟔𝟒 𝟐
𝐬
𝐥𝐛𝐦. 𝐟𝐭
𝐦𝟑 𝐅𝐠𝟑 𝟏𝟓 𝐠𝐦
𝐬𝟐
= = 𝐟𝐭 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝐥𝐛𝐦 𝟒𝟓𝟑. 𝟔 = 222.26 gm
𝐤 𝐠 𝟑𝟎.𝟓 𝟐 𝐥𝐛𝐦
𝐬
𝐥𝐛𝐦. 𝐟𝐭
𝐅𝐠𝟒 𝐤 𝟑𝐥𝐛𝐟 𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟒 𝐠
𝐥𝐛𝐟 𝐬𝟐
m4 = 𝐠
= 𝐟𝐭 𝟒𝟓𝟑. 𝟔 𝐥𝐛𝐦 = 1435.49gm
𝟑𝟎.𝟓 𝟐 𝐦
𝐬
𝐦𝟓 𝐦 𝐥𝐛 𝐠
𝐤
= (0.10 slug) (32.174 𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠) (453.6 𝐥𝐛𝐦 ) = 1459.41 gm
𝐦
Sample Problem 3
3. Five masses in a region where the acceleration due to gravity is
30.5 ft/s2 are as follows: m1 is 500g of mass; m2 weights 800gf: m3 weighs
15 poundals; m4 weighs 3 lbf; m5 is 0.10 slug of mass. What is the total
mass expressed (a) in grams, (b) in pounds and (c) in slugs.
Solution

Total mass = m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 + m5
= 500 + 843.91 + 222.26 + 1435.49 + 1459.41
= 4461.07 gm
𝟒𝟒𝟔𝟏.𝟎 𝐠𝐦
b) Total mass 𝐠𝐦 = 9.83lbm
𝟒𝟓𝟑.𝟔𝐥𝐛𝐦

𝟗.𝟖𝟑 𝐥𝐛𝐦
c) Total mass = 𝐥𝐛𝐦 = 0.306 slug
𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠
Sample Problem 4
4. Note that gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps2
and that its variation is -0.003 fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in
miles above this point for which (a) gravity acceleration becomes
30.504 fps2, (b) weight of a given man is decreased by 5%. (c) What is
the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29,131-ft Mt. Everest in Tibet,
relative to this point?

Solution
a) Change in acceleration = g2 – g1
= 30.504 – 32.088
= -1.584 fps2

𝟏.𝟓𝟖𝟒𝐟𝐩𝐬𝟐
Height, h = − −𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝐟𝐩𝐬𝟐 = 528, 000ft or 100 miles
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐟𝐭
Sample Problem 4
4. Note that gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps2
and that its variation is -0.003 fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in
miles above this point for which (a) gravity acceleration becomes
30.504 fps2, (b) weight of a given man is decreased by 5%. (c) What is
the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29,131-ft Mt. Everest in Tibet,
relative to this point?
Solution
b) Let Fg1 = weight of man at sea level
Fg2 = weight of man at height h

Fg1/g1 = Fg2 /g2

Fg1/g1 = 0.95 Fg1 /g2
g2 = 0.95g1 = (0.95)(32.088) = 30.484 fps2
h = (30.484 – 32.088) fps2
- 0.003fps2/1000ft
= 534,670 ft or 101.3 miles
Sample Problem 4
4. Note that gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level is g = 32.088 fps2
and that its variation is -0.003 fps2 per 1000 ft ascent. Find the height in
miles above this point for which (a) gravity acceleration becomes
30.504 fps2, (b) weight of a given man is decreased by 5%. (c) What is
the weight of a 180 lbm man atop the 29,131-ft Mt. Everest in Tibet,
relative to this point?
Solution
c) g1 = 32.088 fps2
m = 180lbm
𝟐𝟗,𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝐟𝐭
g2 = 32.088 fps2 - (0.003 fps2)
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐟𝐭
= 32.001 fps2
𝐟𝐭
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝐥𝐛𝐦 𝟑𝟐.𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝟐
Fg2 = mg2/k = 𝐬
𝐥𝐛𝐦. 𝐟𝐭
𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟒
𝐥𝐛𝐟. 𝐬𝟐

= 179.03 lbf
 Fluid
Fluids may be divided into liquids and Gases/Vapors. The principal
differences between them are:

Liquid Gas
• Has free surface • Has does not have free surface

• Occupies only a given volume for • Occupies all portions of any

a given mass container regardless of its size or
shape.

• Are practically incompressible • Compressible

The density ρ of any substance is its mass (not weight) per unit volume.
ρ=m/V
The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.
v = V / m or v = 1 / ρ
The specific weight γ of any substance is the force of gravity on unit volume.
γ = Fg/V
The specific weight is to the local acceleration of gravity as the density is to
the standard acceleration, γ/g = ρ/k.
ρ = γ k/g or γ = ρg / k
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically equal, so are ρ and γ.
Sample Problem 1
1. What is the specific weight of water at standard condition?

Solution

g = 9.8066 m/s2 ρ = 1000 kgm/m3

kg m
1000 3m (9.8066 2 )
γ = ρg/k = m
kg .m
s
= 1000 kgf/m3
9.8066 m 2
kgf. s
Sample Problem 2

2.) The specific gravity of mercury is 13. What is

the specific weight of mercury?

Specific Gravity of mercury, SGHg

SGHg = γ Hg .
γSTD water

γHg = (SGHg) ( γ STD water)

= (13) (9.81 kN/m3)
= 127.5 kN/m3 ans.
Sample Problem 3
3. Two liquids of different densities (p1 = 1500 kg/m 3, p2 = 500 kg/m3) are
poured together into a 100-L tank, filling it. If the resulting density of the
mixture is 800 kg/m3, find the respective quantities of liquid used. Also, find
the weight of the mixture; local g = 9.675 mps2.
Solution
Solving equations {1} and {2} simultaneously
• V1 = 0.03 m3
Mass of mixture
• V2 = 0.07 m3
• mm = ρm vm
m1 = ρ1 V1 = (1500 kg/m3) (0.03 m3) = 45 kg
= (800 kg/m3) (.100m3)
m2 = ρ2 V2 = (500 kg/m3) (0.07m3) = 35 kg
= 80kg
• m1 + m2 = mm
Weight of mixture:
• ρ1 V1 + ρ2 V2 = mm
𝒎
• 1500 V1 + 500 V2 = 80 {1} 𝟖𝟎𝒌𝒈𝒎 (𝟗.𝟔𝟕𝟓 𝟐 )
Fgm = mm g/k = 𝒔
𝒌𝒈𝒎.𝒎 = 78.93kgf
• V1 + V2 = 0.100 {2} 𝟗.𝟖𝟎𝟔𝟔
𝒌𝒈𝒇.𝒔𝟐
 VOLUME & MASS OF FLUID IN A VESSEL

1.) A cone tank 5 ft radius and 10 ft high is filled with

water. What is the mass of of water in the tank in tons?
Since tank is filled with water,
Vwater = VTank = π r2 h = π (5ft)2 (10 ft) = 261.8 ft3
3 3
m water = ρwater x Vwater
= (62.4 lbm/ft3) (261.8 ft3) = 163,363.2 lbm

= 163,363.2 lbm x 1 ton .

2000 lbm
m water = 8.16 tons ≈ 8.2 tons ans.
 VOLUME & MASS OF FLUID IN A VESSEL

2.) A water cylindrical vertical tank 1.5 m diameter and

3m high, if the water level is 2.5 m. Calculate the mass
of water.

VWater = (π D2/4) x water level, hw

= [ π (1.5 m)2 / 4] x 2.5 m
= 4.42 m3
mwater = ρwater Vwater
= 1000 kg/m3 x 4.42 m3
= 4420 kg ans.
 p = Force, F
Area, A
Units:
English: lbf/in2 or psi

SI: N/m2 or Pa

1 MPa = 1000 kPa = 106 Pa

Metric: kgf/cm2
A barometer is used to measure Sample Problem: Atmospheric Pressure
atmospheric pressure. A vertical column of water will
be supported to what height by
standard atmospheric pressure?
po ho Solution
At standard condition:
γw = 62.4 lb/ft2
po = 14.7 psi
𝐥𝐛 𝐢𝐧𝟐
𝟏𝟒.𝟕 𝟐 (𝟏𝟒𝟒 𝟐 )
po = γho ho = po/γw = 𝐢𝐧
𝐥𝐛
𝐟𝐭
= 33.9 ft
𝟔𝟐.𝟒 𝟑
𝐟𝐭
Where ho = the height of column of
liquid supported by the atmospheric
pressure Po.

The specific gravity (sp gr) of a substance is the ratio of the specific
weight of the substance to that of water. sp gr = γ / γ w
Fluid enters the tube through the
threaded connection. As the pressure
increases, the tube with an elliptical
section tends to straighten. The linkage
causes the sector to rotate and engages
a small pinion gear which moves the
index hand.
Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere.
• Absolute Pressure, Pabs - is the actual pressure
relative to absolute zero condition. It is the sum of
atmospheric pressure and gage pressure.
Pabs = Po + Pg
Measuring Pressure by using manometers
b) Absolute pressure is less
than atmospheric pressure

• pabs = po + pg

• The gauge reading, pg

is called vacuum pressure
or the vacuum.

U-Tube Manometer

where pg and hg are negative values

Absolute pressure
(pabs = po + pg)
+pg
Atmospheric pressure
(pg = 0, p = po)
pabs -pg vacuum
Absolute pressure
po pabs = po + (– pg)
pabs
(p = 0, pg = po)
Zero absolute or total vacuum
 po Sample Problem: Gage Pressure
Open to atmosphere A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density
at 1878 kg/m3) is located where g = 9.65
mps2. Find the pressure at the base of
the column.
Fg hg pg Solution
hg = 30m
𝐤𝐠
ρ = 1878 𝐦𝟑𝐦
𝐦
g = 9.65𝐬𝟐
𝐤𝐠𝐦 .𝐦
k=𝟏
pabs 𝐍.𝐬𝟐
pabs = po + pg 𝟗.𝟔𝟓 𝟐
𝐦
𝟏𝟖𝟕𝟖 𝟑𝐦
𝐤𝐠

pg = gρh
k
g
= 𝐬
𝐤𝐠𝐦 .𝐦
𝐦
(𝟑𝟎𝐦)
𝟏
𝐍.𝐬𝟐
ρg hg
pg = γhg = = 543,680 N/m2 or 543.68 kPa (gage)
k
Sample Problem:
The pressure of a boiler is 9.5 kg/cm2. The barometer pressure of the
atmosphere is 768 mm Hg. Find the absolute pressure in the boiler.
(ME Board Problem – Oct. 1987)

Solution
pg = 9.5 kg/cm3
ho = 768 mm Hg
At standard condition:
γwater = 1000 kg/m3
kg
13.6 1000 3 (0.768m)
po = (γHg) (ho) = (sp gr)Hg(γw)(ho) = m
cm2
= 1.04 kg / cm2
(10,000 2 )
m

pabs = po + pg = 1.04 + 9.5 = 10.54 kg / cm2

 Factor to convert inches of mercury (or in Hg) to lbf/in2 (or psi)

The factor to convert inches of mercury to psi:

(13.6) (62.4 lb / ft3) (h in)
p = γ Hg hHg = (sp gr)Hg (γ W)(h in of Hg )= in3
1728 ft3
p = 0.491 h, lbf / in2
Or
0.491 psi = 1 in. Hg
Where:
h = column of mercury in inches
po = 0.491 ho, lb/in2
pg = 0.491 hg, lb/in2
pabs = 0.491 habs , lb/in2
Sample Problem: Absolute Pressure
A pressure gage registers 40 psig in a region where the barometer is
14.5 psia. Find the absolute pressure in psia, and in kPa.
Solution
P = 14.5 + 40 = 54.5 psia

1 N = 0.2248 lbf
a = 1m/s2 a = 1 ft/s2 1 lbf = 4.4484 newtons
𝐥𝐛 𝐍 𝐢𝐧
𝟏 𝐤𝐠𝐦 𝟐.𝟐𝟎𝟓𝐤𝐠𝐦 𝟏𝐥𝐛 𝟒.𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟒𝐥𝐛 (𝟑𝟗.𝟑𝟕𝐦)
1 kgm = 𝐦
= 0.06853 slug 1 lb/in2 =
𝐥𝐛𝐦
𝟑𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟒𝐬𝐥𝐮𝐠 𝐢𝐧𝟐
1 lb/in2 = 6895 N/m2
1 m/s2
= (1 m/s2)
(3.28 ft/m)
𝐍
= 3.28 ft/s2 p = (54.5 lb/in2) (6895 𝐦𝟐
)
𝐥𝐛
F = ma/k = (.06863 slug) (3.28 ft/s2) 𝐢𝐧𝟐

= 0.2248 lbf = 375,780 Pa or 375.78 kPa

Sample Problem: Absolute Pressure
Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 in. Hg abs), make these
conversions: (a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere, (b) 20in. Hg vacuum to
in. Hg abs and to psia, (c) 10 psia to psi vacuum to Pa, and (d) 15 in. Hg
gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa. (1 atmosphere = 760 torrs)
Solution
a) p = po + pg = 14.7 + 80 = 94.7 psia
𝟖𝟎 𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐠
pg = 𝐩𝐬𝐢𝐚 = 5.44 atmospheres
𝟏𝟒.𝟕
𝐚𝐭𝐦

b) h = 9.92 in. Hg abs

p = 0.491 h hg = 20 in.
ho = 29.92 in.
p = (0.491)(9.92)
p = 4.87 psia h
Sample Problem: Absolute Pressure
Given the barometric pressure of 14.7 psia (29.92 in. Hg abs), make these
conversions: (a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere, (b) 20in. Hg vacuum to
in. Hg abs and to psia, (c) 10 psia to psi vacuum to Pa, and (d) 15 in. Hg
gage to psia, to torrs, and to Pa. (1 atmosphere = 760 torrs)
Solution d) h = 29.92 + 15 = 44.92 in. Hg abs
c) pg = 4.7psi vacuum p = 0.491 h = (0.491)(44.92) = 22.06 psia
(𝟏𝟓)(𝟕𝟔𝟎)
pg = (4.7 psi) (6895 Pa/psi) pg = = 381 torrs
𝟐𝟗.𝟗𝟐
= 32,407 Pa (gage) pg = 0.491 hg = (0.491
𝐩𝐬𝐢
) (15 in)(6895
𝐏𝐚
)
𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐬𝐢
= 50,780 Pa (gage)

pg hg = 15 in.

po = 14.7 psia h
p = 10psia p = 10psia
How to derive the formula of the relation between degree
Fahrenheit and degree Celsius.

212°F 100°C 𝑡°F − 32 𝑡°C − 0

=
212 − 32 100 − 0

t°F t°C 9
t°F = t°C + 32 = 1.8oC + 32
5

5
32°F 0°C t°C = (t°F – 32)
9
Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from absolute zero
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases
Absolute temperature will be denoted by T, thus

T R = t°F + 460, Rankine,

T K = t°C + 273, Kelvin

• Temperature Reading can be expressed in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) or degrees Celcius (°C)

• Temperature change or difference (∆T) can also be expressed in degrees Fahrenheit (°F) and
degrees Celsius (°C)

Temperature Difference, ∆T = Boiling Point of Water – Freezing Point of Water

∆T = (212 – 32) °F = (100 – 0) °C

180 °F = 100 °C
1 °F = 5 / 9 °C
1 °C = 9 / 5 °F = 1.8 OF
It follows that, ∆T = 1 °F = 1 R and ∆T = 1 °C= 1 K
The specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to
change the temperature of unit mass through one degree.
In dimensional form, c heat (energy units) .
(mass) (change of temperature)

In English system it is expressed in BTU / (lbm) (°F) is numerically equal to cal/

(gm) (°C)
cal
Btu Btu (252 )
1 = g
Btu
5 °C
lbm (°F) lb 454 (°F)( )
lb 9°F

Btu cal
1 = 1
lb (°F) g (°C)
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
The zeroth law of thermodynamics states
that if two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.

Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if

both have the same temperature reading
even if they are not in contact .

It was named the zeroth law since it should

have preceded the first and second laws of
thermodynamics.