Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life

1. Cell
A cell is a structural and functional unit of life present in all living
beings.
The branch of science concerned with the cell and its workings is
called biology.
2. Discovery of the Cell
i. Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, when he
observed cork cells under a crude microscope.
ii. Robert Brown discovered the nucleus in 1831.
iii. Anton Van Leuwenhoek discovered living cells in 1664.
3. Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic cells are unicellular, don’t have membrane bound
organelles (except for ribosomes), don’t have a covering for the
genetic material and are generally 1-10 micrometres in length.
Eukaryotic cells, on the other hand, can be both unicellular and
multicellular, have membrane bound organelles, have genetic
material protected by the nucleus and are generally 5-100
micrometres in length. Prokaryotic cells include organisms such
as bacteria and viruses. Eukaryotic cells are present in organisms
like plants and animals.
4. Cell Theory
 Schlieden, Swann and Virchow created the cell the ory. The cell
theory states;
i. The cell is the basic structural unit of all organisms.
ii. The cell is the basic functional unit of all organisms.
iii. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
iv. All cells contain genetic material passed down from parent
cells.
5. Transport of materials in and out of cells

Substances can enter and exit a cell through the following

methods:

a. Osmosis
The movement of water molecules from regions of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane is called osmosis.
b. Diffusion
The movement of particles from regions of higher concentration
to lower concentration is known as diffusion. It doesn’t require
any energy (e.g. exchange of gases during respiration).
c. Endocytosis
The absorption of a solid food particle from the external
environment is referred to as endocytosis.

6. Types of Solutions
There are three types of solutions: hypertonic, hypotonic and
isotonic.

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 a. Hypertonic Solution
If a solution has more parts solute than water, it is called a
hypertonic solution. Cells placed in a hypertonic solution will
lose water and shrivel up. This process is called exosmosis.
b. Hypotonic Solution
If a solution has more parts water than solute, it is called a
hypotonic solution. Cells placed into a hypotonic solution will
absorb water and swell up. This process is called endosmosis.
c. Isotonic Solution
If a solution has equal parts water and solute, it is called an
isotonic solution. Cells placed into an isotonic solution will
remain neutral.
7. Plasma Membrane
It is the outermost covering of an animal shell. It is behind the cell
wall in plant cells. The plasma membrane is a selectively
permeable membrane composed of phospholipids, carbohydrates
and proteins. It is made up of three types of lipids: phospholipids
(50-60%), cholesterol and glycolipids.
Functions
i. It gives a definite shape to animal cells.
ii. It protects the inner contents of the cell.
iii. It is selectively permeable and only allows useful substances
to pass through it.
iv. It is flexible and so, allows the cell to engulf food particles.
8. Cell Wall

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 The cell wall is a permeable membrane only found in plant cells.
It is made up of cellulose.
Functions
i. It is rigid and provides structure to plant cell.
ii. It protects the inner contents as well as the plasma
membrane of a plant cell.
iii. It is fully permeable and allows all types of materials to pass
through it.
9. Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called the powerhouse of the cell. It is found

in both plant and animal cells. The outer membrane of the
mitochondria is smooth, but the inner membrane is folded. The
folds are called cristae. The cristae bear F1 particles which help
in the generation of energy in the form of Adenosine Triphosphate
(ATP). The mitochondria is a semi-autonomous organelle as it has
its own DNA and ribosomes and as such can independently create
identical copies of itself.

10. Plastids
There are three types of plastids: chloroplasts, chromoplasts
and leucoplasts
i. Chloroplasts
They are only present in plants as they contain chlorophyll
which helps plants carry out photosynthesis. Inside the
chloroplast is a matrix known as the stroma. The stroma has

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 its own coin-like structure called thylakoid. The thylakoid is
made up of grana. It has its own DNA and ribosomes and as
such, is autonomous.
ii. Chromoplasts
It contains red, yellow and orange pigments which give
colour to fruits, flowers and leaves.
iii. Leucoplasts
They are colourless plastids that store starch, fats and
proteins.

11. Nucleus
i. Nuclear Membrane
The nuclear membrane, sometimes referred to as the
nuclear envelope, is the membrane that encloses the
nucleus. The nuclear membrane is made up of a
double lipid bilayer. This bilayer membrane is made of
lipids and encases the genetic material in eukaryotic
cells.

ii. Nucleolus

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 It is a spherical body located in the nucleus which helps
in the production of ribosomes.
iii. Chromatin Network
Chromatin is a mass of genetic material composed of
DNA and proteins that condense to form
chromosomes during eukaryotic cell division.
Chromatin can be found in the nucleus of our cells.
The primary function of chromatin is to compress the
DNA into a compact unit that will be less voluminous
and can fit within the nucleus. Chromatin consists of
complexes of small proteins known as histones and
DNA. Histones help to organize DNA into structures
called nucleosomes by providing a base on which the
DNA can be wrapped around.

12. Endoplasmic Reticulum

It is a membranous, tubular structure. It is connected to the
nuclear membrane at one end and the plasma membrane at

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 the other end. ER is of two types: Smooth ER and Rough
ER.
i. Rough ER
It has ribosomes, thus giving it the titular rough
appearance. It helps in formation of proteins and
lysosomes
ii. Smooth ER
It doesn’t have ribosomes, hence the smooth
appearance. It helps in the formation of fats and lipids.
It also helps in the detoxification of drugs and poisons.
13. Golgi Apparatus
It consists of cisternae and small spherical vesicles. The
Golgi Apparatus helps in the modification, packaging and
transportation of substances and the formation of
lysosomes.

14. Lysosomes
They are only found in animal cells. They contain digestive
enzymes which help in the digestion of old cells, microbes
etc.

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 If the cell becomes inactive, the lysosomes burst and
consume the host cell. This has earned them the title of
‘suicidal bags’.
15. Vacuoles
They are fluid-filled membrane-bound organelles. Plants
generally tend to have one large vacuole whereas in animal
cells, they are either small or non-existent. Vacuoles help in
the storage of wasteful and useful products. Vacuoles also
help in osmoregulation (balancing of water levels in a cell)
as well as providing turgidity to the cell.
16. Cytoplasm
It is a jelly-like substance present in the cell. It is the site for
metabolic reaction that occur in the cell.

17. Phospholipids
I. They make up the majority of the cell membrane.
II. They are molecules which have a phosphate group (head)
which is hydrophilic (water loving) and a tail comprising of
two fatty acid chains which are hydrophobic (water hating).

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 III. Due to the water found inside and outside a cell, they
arrange themselves into a bilipid layer.

18. Cholesterol and Glycolipids

a. Cholesterol molecules are found between the
phospholipids of the cell membrane. Their function Is to
assist in the stability of the membrane, preventing it from
becoming solid at cooler temperatures and liquid at high
temperatures.
b. Glycolipids are a combination of carbohydrates and lipids.
They act as cell markers, allowing the cells to recognize
one another. This is especially important in immunity as
foreign cells are marked thus allowing immune system
cells to identify and destroy them without destroying its
own cells.
19. Cell Membrane Proteins

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 A major component of cell membrane are proteins. There
are many types of proteins, which are grouped into two
distinct groups:
a. Integral Proteins
They penetrate part or all of the way through the
hydrophobic interior of the cell membrane. They are also
important as they connect the membrane to the
cytoskeleton, providing structure to the cell.
b. Peripheral Proteins
They aren’t embedded in the membrane but are
connected loosely to the lipid bi-layer or to an integral
protein.
20. Major proteins in the cell membrane
a. Transport proteins
b. Receptor proteins
c. Enzymes
d. Cell Recognition
21. Cellular Energy
i. Living things require energy
ii. The energy used in the maintenance of life processes is
extracted from fuel molecules such as glucose in the process
of respiration.
iii. Living things are classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs
depending on the source of fuel molecules and energy.

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 iv. Autotrophs synthesise fuel molecules for respiration using
non-living materials in the environment (e.g. plants and
algae).
v. Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain fuel molecules for
respiration by consuming other living things.
22. Photosynthesis
i. The sun is the primary source of energy for living things on
earth.
ii. Energy is transferred in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.
iii. Organisms called photoautotrophs such as plants and
phytoplankton absorb energy from sunlight and use it to
perform photosynthesis.
iv. It is the conversion of carbon dioxide and water into glucose
and oxygen
Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen + water
6CO2 + 6H2O →C6H12O6 + 6O2
v. Photoautotrophs contain light absorbing molecules such as
chlorophyll (present in the chloroplast), which absorbs
certain wavelengths of light.
vi. The glucose produced in photosynthesis is broken down to
form energy during respiration.
23. Aerobic Respiration
i. It is the process of releasing energy through the breakdown
of glucose in the presence of oxygen.

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 ii. It occurs in the cytoplasm and cell membrane of aerobic
prokaryotes.
iii. It occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of eukaryotes.
iv. The chemical equation is C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
(glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water).
24. Anaerobic Respiration
i. It is the process of releasing energy through the breakdown
of glucose in the absence of oxygen.
ii. It has two different types: alcohol fermentation and lactic acid
fermentation.
25. The World of Microbes
Microbes can be found in almost all environments on Earth. Almost all
microbes belong to 3 of 5 kingdoms: fungi, morera (bacteria) and
protista. There are 6 types: bacteria, archaea, algae, yeast, protozoa
and viruses (which aren’t classified as living beings). Growth of bacteria

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is defined as replication and will occur exponentially until a lack o
resources prevents further increase in population size.

The log phase refers to when the cells aren’t able to divide and are
preparing for growth, accumulating enzymes and other molecules.
Exponential doubling in cell numbers depends on growth conditions.
Stationary growth is limited due to the factor of cell dividing being
equivalent to the cell dying. Death occurs when no further nutrients are
available for further growth.
Factors influencing the growth of microbes include oxygen levels,
temperature, amount of nutrients, the external surroundings, sunlight,
pH level of said surroundings and sterilization.
These factors can be influenced to stimulate differing results.
Temperature can be changed by utilizing a heat incubator or placing
the sample of bacteria into a freezer or fridge. Samples can be sterilized

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through use of chemicals of bleach or soap. The pH level can be
changed through usage of acids, bases or other such substances.
Different methods of creating agar plates:
1. Use 2 plates with same method but add a treatment
2.

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