(3rd ) 17/01/19

Q7. What are the scales of observation in petrophysics?

Sketches illustrating how scales of geological features, wireline logs and different types of
hydrocarbon reservoir data/model elements are related

Q13. Ignoring the scale of observation what are the two end members of heterogeneity?

An illustration of how heterogeneity can be separated into two ‘end-members’ of spatial fabric
and grain component
Q15. Discuss on the scale, resolution and their relation with heterogeneity.

Schematic illustration of the influence of thin beds (A, B), grading (B) and grain size and sorting
(C) on petrophysical measurement volumes. (A, B) focus on deep and shallow well log
measurements, and (B) focuses on core and thin section measurements.
 (4th) 22/01/19

Q1. What is seismic (acoustic) impedance?

The concept of acoustic (or seismic) impedance is critical to understanding seismic reflectivity.

Seismic impedance controls the seismic reflection process in the sense that seismic energy is
reflected only at rock interfaces in which there are changes in impedance across the interface.
Seismic impedance is defined as

Any alteration in rock properties that causes ρ and/or V to change can be the genesis of a seismic
reflection event; therefore, areal and vertical variations in seismic reflectivity can be used to infer
spatial distributions of rock types and porosity trends.

Q2. What is a 4D feasibility study?

How a reservoir is changing wrt time?

It is the model able to tap the reservoir properties.

Time-lapse seismic monitoring of producing reservoirs presents strong potential for improving
reservoir management.
The petrophysical, pore pressure and fluid saturation data provide the basis for predicting time-
dependent elastic properties of the reservoir using the Gassmann equation.

Time-lapse seismic surveys have been successfully applied to monitor fluid changes in a
reservoir during production. The acoustic properties in the reservoir is affected by the fluid
changes since the bulk density and the bulk modulus of rock change as the pore fluid is replaced.

Primary objective: to synthesize seismic amplitude responses to variations in reservoir

conditions. From this we can determine the type of 4D signal that changes in the rocks and fluids
will generate, whether that signal will be detectable above the noise, and the most realistic 4D
response.
The first step is to build a rock physics model of the reservoir and then investigate the
uncertainty of the model to variations in reservoir parameters such as saturation and pressure.

Q3. What are the steps of 4D feasibility studies?

Well data conditioning (1st Seismic)—Preparing well data for survey design, seismic
processing, and inversion.

Integrated rock physics modeling (1st Impedance Model)—Combining fluid and rock
property analysis, modeling, and substitution.

Earth model and simulation-based modeling (Porosity Model)—Simulation-based modeling

of 4D responses during the producing life of the reservoir to predict the applicability of 4D
seismic methods for continuously monitoring reservoir changes into the future. The asset team
uses these results to determine time-lapse intervals that will provide the information needed to
optimize reservoir production.

Rock physics and fluid substitution modeling (Flow simulation)—Modeling of reservoir rock
physical properties including Vp, Vs, bulk density, bulk Poisson’s ratio, and reflectivity from
existing data to determine seismic responses to reservoir production. The resulting fluid
substitution models can then be used to assess the effect of different reservoir production
scenarios, including changes in saturation, pressure, fluid properties, or the rock properties
themselves.

Seismic response modeling (2nd Seismic)—Demonstrating the detectability of the 4D signal and
the required time lapse through modeling. Real seismic data are used to quantify and visualize
the expected 4D response.

Establishing the probability of success (2nd Impedance Model)—Checking the results of 4D

studies against reservoir objectives and recommendations on the basis of the likely technical
success of 4D methods.

Q4. What is Upscaling?

Lab (fine) to field (coarse)

By scaling we can translate results from a laboratory to a field, from one field to another, and
from a part of a field to the entire one.

Upscaling is a process that scales properties of a fine grid to a coarse grid such that the behavior
in the two systems is similar. Generally, we seldom translate results between two exactly same
scale systems and almost every translating result between two systems involves some upscaling.

Upscaling, or homogenization, is substituting a heterogeneous property region consisting of fine

grid cells with an equivalent homogeneous region made up of a single coarse-grid cell with an
effective property value. (Equivalent in this case means either volume or flux vice, depending on
the type of property that is to be upscaled.)
Upscaling is performed for each of the cells in the coarse grid and for each of the grid properties
needed in the reservoir flow-simulation model. Therefore, the upscaling process is essentially an
averaging procedure in which the static and dynamic characteristics of a fine-scale model are to
be approximated by that of a coarse-scale model.

Q5. What is Gassmann Fluid Substitution Method?

Fluid substitution is an essential step is a seismic attribute analysis. It allows us to understand

how the seismic response of a rock changes when the pore fluids change.

To extract fluid types or saturations from seismic, crosswell, or borehole sonic data, we need a
procedure to model fluid effects on rock velocity and density. Numerous techniques have been
developed. However, Gassmann’s equations are by far the most widely used relations to
calculate seismic velocity changes because of different fluid saturations in reservoirs.

Modeling the changes from one fluid type to another requires that the effects of the starting fluid
first be removed prior to modeling the new fluid. In practice, the rock is drained of its initial pore
fluid, and the moduli (bulk and shear) and bulk density of the porous frame are calculated. Once
the porous frame properties are properly determined, the rock is saturated with the new pore
fluid, and the new effective bulk modulus and density are calculated.

Q6. REFRACTION SERIES?

Q7. ACTUAL VS. IDEALIZED INVERSION?

Q8. SEISMIC INVERSION WORKFLOW?

Q9. What is attenuation?

Energy loss / cycle

High frequency -> more attenuation

Q10. How does attenuation depend on the wave used?

If fabric is dry and only pore distribution is varied (uniform and non-uniform) then there are very
less chances that the wave will get attenuated, since the wavelength will not fit within the
scattering window of the pores and won’t resonate.

High frequency -> more attenuation

Q11. WHY DOES MAJORITY OF THE DISPERSION/ATTENUATON HAPPENS

WHEN THERE IS FLUID IN THE PORES?
 (5th) 24/01/19

Q1. What is the difference between instantaneous and finite stress?

Instantaneous strain helps system to become elastic whereas finite stress makes system plastic.
Consider a geologic unit on which a instantaneous stess (stress for a very short interval) is
exerted, the geologic unit will not get deformed, however, if a finite stress (stress for a very long
period of time) is exerted it will totally deform the unit.

Therefore, there is a time rate of stress and strain for a system to respond.

Q2. What is the range of strains?

Seismic (dynamic/elastic/instantaneous strain): 10-6 – 10-7

Static/Plastic/Finite strain: 10-3 - 10-4

More soft body: 10-1 - 10-2

Q3. WHAT ARE LINEAR ELASTIC CURVE, HYSTERISIS, NON-LINEAR ELASTIC

CURVE?

Q4. What is Elastic theory? Its fundamental assumptions and abrations?

Elasticity Theory

A large part of geophysics concerns understanding how material deforms when it is squeezed, stretched, or sheared.
Elasticity theory is the mathematical framework which describes such deformation. By elastic, we mean that the
material rebounds to its original shape after the forces on it are removed; a rubber eraser is a good example of an
elastic material. Play-dough, on the other hand, is a good example of a material which is not elastic- if you squeeze
it and then let go, the material stays in the shape it was when you squeezed it. Materials of this type are described as
being plastic, rather than elastic, and elasticity theory is not suitable for understanding how these plastic materials
deform. In reality, most materials are both elastic and plastic, but on different time scales. Silly-putty is one such
example- it stretches like hot bubble gum, which is plastic behavior, but you can also roll it up and bounce it like a
ball, which means it’s also elastic. The key is the time duration of the external force- when you stretch it like gum,
the force is acting over several seconds, while when you bounce it off the floor, the impact on the floor lasts only a
fraction of a second. So silly putty is plastic for forces acting over time scales of several seconds, by is elastic for
very short –duration forces. Most of the materials that make up the earth are in fact elastic over time scales of years,
and plastic over time scales of thousands to millions of years.
 Stress

There are two basic types of stress. If the force is perpendicular (normal) to the surface over which it is acting, then
the stress is termed a normal stress; if it is tangential to the surface, it is called a shear stress. Usually, the foce is
neither enitrely normal nor tangential, but is at some arbitrary intermediate angle, in which case it can be resolved
into components which are both normal and tangential to the surface; so the stress is composed of both normal and
shearing components. The sign convention is that tensional stresses are positive and compressional stresses negative
(in geophysics).

Directionality

Stress also has directionality to it- clearly a force acting in one direction will deform an object differently than a
force which is oriented perpendicular to it. So, we need to develop how we incorporate directionality into stress. To
do this, we use a hypothetical cube of material, it can be a free standing cube, or one imbedded deep in a larger piece
of material.

Consider a small parallelipiped with sides x, y, and z, as shown in Figure 1 below, and imagine that it is being
stressed by some external force. On each face, Figure 1 The parallelipiped is in static equilbrium. Stresses acting on
the shaded back face are (-xx, -xy, and -xz). Stress acting on the front face are (xx, xy, and xz) the stresses can be
resolved into components in the x,y, and z directions. The stresses acting on the shaded face are -xx, -xy, and -xz.
The notation is that xy refers to the stress  acting in the y direction on the face which is perpendicular to the x axis.
The normal stress is thus -xx and the shearing stresses are -xy, and -xz.

If the parallelipiped is to be in static equilibrium (not moving), then the stresses on opposite faces must balance, and
there must be no net couple which would rotate the parallelipiped. This requires that the stresses on opposite faces
be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The shearing stresses on opposite faces of the parallelipiped (eg, -
xy and xy on the back and front faces as shown in Figure 1) provide a couple of forces, or couple, which will roate
the parallelipiped. Since the parallelipiped must not rotate, this couple must be balanced by the couple provided by
the shearing stresses -yx, and yx acting on the two side faces. This means that xy must equal yx. . The same
conditions apply to the other shearing stresses: xy = yx, xz = zx, yz = zy (ie, the stress tensor must be
symmetric).
 Scalars versus Vectors versus Tensors

Stress and Strain are both tensor quantities, which means that they are more than just simple
scalars
or vectors. Tensors are just an extension of this, it’s a number which has any number of
directions associated with it. In the case of stress, it is a 2-direction tensor, containing the
direction of the force and the direction of the perpendicular to the face on which the force is
acting. Strain is like wise a tensor with two directions, or a rank 2 tensor. A physical quantity
which had three directions associated with it would simply be a rank-3 tensor.

Every engineering material possesses a certain extent of elasticity. The common materials of
construction would remain elastic only for very small strains before exhibiting either plastic
straining or brittle failure. However, natural polymeric materials show elasticity over a wider
range (usually with time or rate effects thus they would more accurately be characterized as
viscoelastic), and the widespread use of natural rubber and similar materials motivated the
development of finite elasticity.

1.1.2 THE GENERAL THEORY OF ELASTICITY

George Green highlighted the maximum possible number of independent elastic moduli in the
most general anisotropic solid in 1837. Green pointed out that the existence of elastic strain
energy required that of the 36 elastic constants relating the 6 stress components to the 6 strains,
at most 21 could be independent.

1.1.3 ASSUMPTIONS OF LINEAR ELASTICITY

In order to evaluate the stresses, strains and displacements in an elasticity problem, one needs to
derive a series of basic equations and boundary conditions. During the process of deriving such
equations, one can consider all the influential factors, the results obtained will be so complicated
and hence practically no solutions can be found. Therefore, some basic assumptions have to be
made about the properties of the body considered to arrive at possible solutions. Under such
assumptions, we can neglect some of the influential factors of minor importance. The following
are the assumptions in classical elasticity.

1. The Body is Continuous

Here the whole volume of the body is considered to be filled with continuous matter,
without any void. Only under this assumption, can the physical quantities in the body,
such as stresses, strains and displacements, be continuously distributed and thereby
expressed by continuous functions of coordinates in space. However, these assumptions
will not lead to significant errors so long as the dimensions of the body are very large in
comparison with those of the particles and with the distances between neighbouring
particles.
 2. The Body is Perfectly Elastic

The body is considered to wholly obey Hooke's law of elasticity, which shows the linear
relations between the stress components and strain components. Under this assumption,
the elastic constants will be independent of the magnitudes of stress and strain
components.

3. The Body is Homogenous

In this case, the elastic properties are the same throughout the body. Thus, the elastic
constants will be independent of the location in the body. Under this assumption, one can
analyse an elementary volume isolated from the body and then apply the results of
analysis to the entire body.

4. The Body is Isotropic

Here, the elastic properties in a body are the same in all directions. Hence, the elastic
constants will be independent of the orientation of coordinate axes.

5. The Body is Linear

The Displacements and Strains are Small.

The displacement components of all points of the body during deformation are very small
in comparison with its original dimensions and the strain components and the rotations of
all line elements are much smaller than unity. Hence, when formulating the equilibrium
equations relevant to the deformed state, the lengths and angles of the body before
deformation are used. In addition, when geometrical equations involving strains and
displacements are formulated, the squares and products of the small quantities are
neglected. Therefore, these two measures are necessary to linearize the algebraic and
differential equations in elasticity for their easier solution.

Q5. 1.1.4 APPLICATIONS OF LINEAR ELASTICITY

Q6. What are the abrations in the Theory of Elasticity?

Heterogeneous
Anisotropy
Amorphous
Crystalline
Plastic
Viscoelasticity/Rheology
Q7. What is viscoelasticity?

Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics
when undergoing deformation.
Viscous materials, like water, resist shear flow and strain linearly with time when a stress is
applied. Elastic materials strain when stretched and immediately return to their original state
once the stress is removed.
Viscoelastic materials have elements of both of these properties and, as such, exhibit time-
dependent strain. These materials possesses a memory (fading) of past events.

Peak of strain is not at peak of stress, there is a lag. This is how we understand viscoelastic
medium.

Q8. What is hysteresis?

Hysteresis is the dependence of the state of a system on its history. For example, a magnet may
have more than one possible magnetic moment in a given magnetic field, depending on how the
field changed in the past.

Q9. DERIVATION OF STRESS STRAIN AND BACK CALCULATION FROM GIVEN

GRAPH AND LENGTH AND RADIUS?

Q10. What is hydrostatic pressure?

Axial stress = radial stress = confining stress

Static connected water column

0.45 psi/feet
Q11. State Hooke’s Law in terms of stress-strain tensor?

In a linearly elastic material, which can be described by Hooke's law as one in which each
component of stress is dependent on every component of strain, the following relationship exists:

For anisotropic media

where σ is the stress, C is the elastic moduli or stiffness constant, and e is the strain.

The stiffness matrix, otherwise known as the elastic modulus matrix, that relates the stress
components to the strain components is

The elements of the stiffness matrix are the elastic constants of an elastic solid. Since this matrix
is symmetric, cij = cji, there are 21 independent constants (elements above the diagonal are
redundand and hence ignored) for an elastic medium.

Q12. Stiffness matrix for an isotropic solid?

For an isotropic solid, the elastic behavior of which is independent of direction at a point within
the solid, the number of independent elastic constants is only two, known as Lamé’s constants, λ
and μ. Consequently, the stiffness matrix given by equation reduces to the special form:
To describe the P- and S-wave propagation in isotropic solids, only two elastic parameters are
needed — Lamé’s constants, λ and μ. Other elastic parameters — Young’s modulus E, Poisson’s
ratio σ and bulk modulus κ, and the P- and S-wave velocities can all be expressed in terms of λ
and μ.

Q13. What is seismic anisotropy? VTI and HTI?

Seismic anisotropy is a term used in seismology to describe the directional (or angle) dependence
of the velocity of seismic waves in a medium (rock) within the Earth.
Anisotropy differs from the property called heterogeneity in that anisotropy is the variation in
values with direction at a point while heterogeneity is the variation in values between two or
more points.

General anisotropy is described by a 4th order elasticity tensor with 21 independent elements.
However, in practice observational studies are unable to distinguish all 21 elements, and
anisotropy is usually simplified

No reservoir is solved by taking it anisotropic (in practical). To solve it is assumed to be either

isotropic (2 elastic coeff.) or weakly anisotropic (3 elastic coeff.).

In the simplest form, there are two main types of anisotropy, both of them are called transverse
isotropy (it is called transverse isotropy because there is isotropy in the horizontal or vertical
plane) or polar anisotropy. The difference between them is in their axis of symmetry, which is an
axis of rotational invariance such that if we rotate the formation about the axis, the material is
still indistinguishable from what it was before.

VTI (vertical transverse isotropy)- Vertical plane k transverse isotropy

transverse isotropy with a vertical axis of symmetry. This kind of anisotropy is associated with
layering and shale and is found where gravity is the dominant factor.

HTI (horizontal transverse isotropy)- Horizontal plane k transverse isotropy

transverse isotropy with a horizontal axis of symmetry. This kind of anisotropy is associated with
cracks and fractures in the direction other than bedding direction and is found where regional
stress is the dominant factor.

The transverse anisotropic matrix has the same form as the isotropic matrix, except that it has
five non-zero values distributed among 12 non-zero elements.
For a transversely isotropic solid, the elastic behavior of which is the same in two orthogonal
directions but different in the third direction, the number of independent constants is five.

For the more specific case of vertically transverse isotropy (VTI), which has a vertical symmetry
axis, the five independent elastic constants are c11, c13, c33, c44, and c66.

To explicitly describe the effect of anisotropy in wave propagation, Thomsen has elegantly
redefined the five elastic constants for the VTI media — the vertical P- and S-wave velocities, α0
and β0, in the vertical direction,

and three constants that describe the degree of anisotropy, ε, γ, and δ, in terms of the five
constants c , c , c , c , and c
11 13 33 44 66
Q14. TYPE OF SYSTEM AND THE NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT
ELASTIC/STIFFNESS COEFFICIENT REQUIRED TO SOLVE THE HOOKE’S LAW?

(6th)29/01/19

MISSED THIS CLASS ON GRAPHS OF HOOKE’S LAW, FAILURE, STRESS STRAIN,

ETC.
TAKE NOTES FROM ANULA, PAVIT, BHARAT
 (7th)29/01/19 (TUTORIAL)

Q1. Different types of stress to deal with?

Pc (Overburden Pressure)
Pp (Formation Pressure)
Pd (= Pc – Pp)
Effective Pressure (= Pc – nPp)

Q2. What is zone of overpressure? Depth vs Velocity plot?

Q3. Biot’s coefficient?

Q4. What is PHI Critical?

Critical porosity is the porosity above which the rock can exist only as a suspension.

Porosity above which grain-to-grain contact is lost and hence shear strength vanishes.

In the lower porosity domain, the stiffness of the sandstone is determined by the framework of
contacting quartz grains. In the higher-porosity domain, the grains are not in contact anymore
and are suspended in water. In this case, the stiffness of the sediment is determined by the pore
fluid.
We call this threshold porosity "critical porosity" (Nur et al., 1998). The rocks where the solid
phase is spatially continuous and dominates the stiffness of the rock have porosity that is smaller
than the critical porosity.

Q5. WHICH SYSTEM HAS PHI=47.5 POSSIBLE?

 (8th)12/02/19

Q1. Will there be changes in properties if the system is in dynamic or static state?

Dynamic state: Flow

Static state: Steady

Dynamic elastic moduli and static elastic moduli.

If the system is heterogenoeus then there will be differences in properties. Also, the change
depends on the scale of frequency used.

Q2. What are dispersive properties?

Frequency dependent properties.

Q3. Shear modulus is independent of fluid. Then why is it dispersive?

It is actually not dispersive, since the statement is made for the case where the same sample is
measured at different frequencies.
Porosity and Depth (Stress)

Q4. What is irreducible water saturation?

The fraction of the pore space occupied by water when the hydrocarbon content is at maximum.
This level of water can only be reduced by flow of very dry gas that evaporates the water.

The lowest water saturation, Swir, that can be achieved in a core plug by displacing the water by
oil or gas. The state is usually achieved by flowing oil or gas through a water-saturated sample,
or spinning it in a centrifuge to displace the water with oil or gas.

Q5. What is residual oil saturation?

Fraction of pore volume occupied by oil at the end of oil displacement that used a specific fluid.

The residual oil saturation quantity is the saturation achieved after an infinite number of pore
volumes of the displacing fluid have flowed through a particular portion of reservoir rock. To
define residual oil saturation, the displacement method and the type, volume, direction and
velocity of the displacing fluid must be known. Residual oil saturation is the ratio of the
immobile residual oil volume divided by the effective porosity.

Q6. What is drainage?

The process of forcing a nonwetting phase into a porous rock. Oil migrates into most reservoirs
as the non-wetting phase, so initial charging of the reservoir is a drainage process.
Q7. What is imbibition?

The process of absorbing a wetting phase into a porous rock. Imbibition is important in a
waterdrive reservoir because it can advance or hinder water movement, affecting areal sweep.
Spontaneous imbibition refers to the process of absorption with no pressure driving the phase
into the rock. It is possible for the same rock to imbibe both water and oil, with water imbibing at
low in situ water saturation, displacing excess oil from the surface of the rock grains, and oil
imbibing at low in-situ oil saturation, displacing excess water.

Q8. Effect of grain sorting and porosity on curve?