1. Comparison between types of switching.

Sr. Function Message Switching Circuit Switching Packet Switching

No.

1. Concept In message switching, When you or your With this

each switch stores the
whole message and
forwards it to the next
switch. Although, we
don't see message
switching at lower
layers, it is still used in
some applications like
electronic mail (e-
mail).
computer places a technology, packets
telephone call, the are sent as soon as
switching equipment they are available.
within the telephone
system seeks out a
physical path all the
way from your
telephone to the
receiver’s telephone.
This technique is called
circuit switching.

2. Store and Yes store and forward No store and forward Yes store and
forward transmission is required transmission is not forward
transmission required transmission is
required

3. Terminal Telegraph, teletype Telephone, modem Computer

4. Information Morse, Baudot, ASCII Analog Voice or PCM Any binary

representation digital voice information

5. Transmission Digital over various Analog and digital over Digital over various
system media various media media
6. Addressing Geographical addresses Hierarchical numbering Hierarchical address
plan space

7. Routing Manual routing Route selected during Each packet routed

call setup independently

8. Multiplexing Character multiplexing, Circuit multiplexing Packet multiplexing

message multiplexing shared media across
networks

9. Basic User Transmission of Bidirectional real time Datagram and

and Network telegrams (Telegraph transfer of voice signals reliable stream
network) (Telephone network) service between
computers (Internet).

10. Call setup No call setup is not Call setup is required In this call setup is
necessary not needed

11. Example E-mail Network Telephone Network Interact for datagram

& reliable stream
service between
computers
Fig: Package Switching

Fig: Circuit Switching

2. Network Topology
Computers in a network have to be connected in some logical manner. The layout pattern of the interconnections
between computers in a network is called network topology. You can think of topology as the virtual shape or
structure of the network. Network topology is also referred to as 'network architecture.'
Devices on the network are referred to as 'nodes.' The most common nodes are computers and peripheral devices.
Network topology is illustrated by showing these nodes and their connections using cables. There are a number of
different types of network topologies, including:
I. BUS Topology
II. STAR Topology
III. RING Topology
IV. MESH Topology
V. TREE Topology
VI. HYBRID Topology

I. BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When it
has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Fig: Bus Topology

 Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.
2. Every device is connected to a single cable

 Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

 Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

II. RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the last
one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors for each device.

Fig: Ring Topology

 Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants to
send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99
nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each
Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if
one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of
the network, till the destination node.
  Advantages of Ring Topology
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens
can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand.

 Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

III. STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node
and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Fig: Star Topology

 Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.
2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

 Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
  Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity.

IV. MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh
has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are:

1. Routing
2. Flooding

Routing
In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to
reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and
it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.
Flooding
In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is
robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

Fig: Mesh Topology

  Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh
topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

 Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

 Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

 Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

V. TREE Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology.
It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Fig: Tree Topology

  Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

 Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

 Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

VI. HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office in
one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in
Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Fig: Hybrid Topology

  Features of Hybrid Topology

1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

 Advantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.

2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.

 Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
(a) Switch Line
A switched line allows a physical transmission path to be established and dedicated to a single connection between
two points of a network for the duration that the connection lasts. However, the switched network does not have
dedicated links between the points or users, and therefore requires extra switching hardware.
The switching equipment provides a temporary communication path between the two user terminals, giving the two
users exclusive use of the link. The communication path provided by the switched line may vary each time a
connection is established between two users.
Switched lines are commonly used for ordinary voice telephone systems where the telephone company reserves the
established physical path between a caller and the called number. The reservation lasts throughout the call and no
one else can use the associated physical lines during this time.
A switching device such as a private branch network (PBX) is often used within an organization to provide users
with the ability to share a number of external phone lines directly from their extensions. The PBX allows users to
access and share a few external lines, and hence eliminates the need to assign each user an individual line.
Advantages of a switched line are:

 Low cost, especially if there is low usage or traffic between terminals

 Provides means to access and connect multiple distant machines
 Flexibility since many machines offering different services can be accessed
 Once a breakdown occurs on a connection to a facility, the user or machine can redial and obtain an
alternative route to the facility.

(b) Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable has two wires of copper. The core wire lies in the center and it is made of solid conductor. The core
is enclosed in an insulating sheath. The second wire is wrapped around over the sheath and that too in turn encased
by insulator sheath. This all is covered by plastic cover.

Because of its structure, the coax cable is capable of carrying high frequency signals than that of twisted pair cable.
The wrapped structure provides it a good shield against noise and cross talk. Coaxial cables provide high bandwidth
rates of up to 450 mbps.

There are three categories of coax cables:

 RG stands for "radio guide." The numbers of the various versions of RG cable refer to the diameter (59
meaning .059, and 6 meaning .06, etc.). They are also called RF cables, which stands for "radio frequency".
 Most non-industrial coax is now known as RG-6, but installers may use a thicker cable, like RG-11.
 RG cables used in homes should be 75 ohm impedance.

Cables are connected using BNC connector and BNC-T. BNC terminator is used to terminate the wire at the far
ends.
The diagram below illustrates the construction of a typical cable.

1. Center conductor - copper-clad steel.

2. Center conductor bond - clean stripping polymer is utilized to block moisture migration.

3. Dielectric - polyethylene providing mechanically stable, closed cell foam with high VP.

4. First outer conductor - shield with an aluminum-polymeraluminum tape securely bonded to the dielectric
core.

5. Second outer conductor - an additional aluminum-polymer-aluminum tape is used in tri-shield and quad-
shield constructions to further enhance HF shield isolation before and after flexure.

6. Third outer conductor - an additional aluminum-polymer-aluminum tape is used in tri-shield and quad-
shield constructions to further enhance HF shield isolation before and after flexure.

7. Fourth outer conductor - an additional 34 or 36 AWG aluminum braid is used in quad-shield constructions
to further improve LF shield isolation in extreme RF noise environments.

8. Corrosion resistant protectant

1. Indoor and aerial - a non-drip material designed to eliminate moisture migration into the cable
construction.

2. Underground - a flowing compound able to seal small jacket ruptures.

9. Jacket - a UV stable outer jacket of either polyethylene (PE) or flame retardant polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is
available to protect the core during installation and for the installed life of the cable.

10. Integral messenger - a galvanized, carbon steel wire support member attached to the cable by a separable
web.

Coaxial cable is commonly used by cable operators, telephone companies, and internet providers around the world
to convey data, video, and voice communications to customers. It has also been used extensively within homes.
  Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Sufficient frequency range to support multiple channel, which allows for much greater throughput.
 Lower error rates. Because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield, noise immunity is improved, and
coax has a lower error rates and therefore slightly better performance than twisted pair.
 Greater spacing between amplifiers coax's cable shielding reduces noise and crosstalk, which means
amplifiers can be spaced farther apart than with twisted pair.

 Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 More expensive to install compare to twisted pair cable.

 The thicker the cable, the more difficult to work with.

o Two type of coaxial cables are:

1. Baseband Coaxial Cable:

 Another Common transmission medium is the coaxial cable. It has better shielding than twisted pairs. It
consists of a stiff copper wire surrounded by an insulating material.

 The insulator is encased by a braided mesh cylindrical conductor. The outer conductor is covered in a
protective plastic sheath.

 Coaxial cable gives a good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. The bandwidth is
depends on cable length. E.g. 1-km cables, data rate of 1 to 2 Gbps.

 This cable is commonly used in telephone system, cable television and some LAN.

 Coaxial cable is commonly used in two types. 50-ohm cable, called baseband coaxial cable, is commonly
used for digital transmission.

 Another 75-ohm cable, called broadband coaxial cable, is commonly used for analog transmission on
standard cable television cabling.
 Fig: Baseband Coaxial Cable

2. Broadband Coaxial Cable:

 Broadband systems typically cover a large area and therefore need analog amplifiers to strengthen the signal.
These amplifiers can only transmit signals in one direction, so a computer outputting a packet will not be
able to reach computers upstream from it if an amplifier lies between them. To solve this problem, two types
of broadband systems have been developed: Dual cable and single cable systems.

 Dual cable systems have two identical cables running in parallel. The root of the cable tree is head-end. All
computers transmit data on cable 1 and receive data on cable 2.

 Single cable system allocates different frequency bands for inbound and outbound communication on a
single cable. The low frequency band is used for communication from the computers to the head-end, which
then shifts the signal to the high-frequency band and rebroadcast it. For inbound traffic, 5 to 30 MHz
frequencies are used, and for outbound traffic, 40 to 300 MHz frequencies are used.

Broadband networks (a) Dual cable, (b) Single cable.