Assignment no: 2

Subject: Introduction to plant physiology

Title: Application of different PGRs to kill weeds, mechanism of

controlling weeds, and future challenges

Submitted by: Hafsa Wadood (SP17-BTY-004)

Arrisha Nayab (SP17-BTY-025)

Submitted to: Dr. Yasar Sajjad

Date: 19- 05-2019

Contents
Weeds ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
Herbicides ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
Non-selective herbicides:.......................................................................................................................... 3
Selective herbicides: ................................................................................................................................. 3
Plant growth regulators ............................................................................................................................ 4
2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)........................................................................................................ 5
Sensitivity of plants towards 2,4-D ............................................................................................................... 5
2,4-D as herbicide: ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Effect of 2,4-D of plant tissue ....................................................................................................................... 6
Mechanism of action: ................................................................................................................................... 6
Absorption of 2,4-D....................................................................................................................................... 9
Effect of 2,4-D on Soil ................................................................................................................................... 9
Disappearance of 2,4-D................................................................................................................................. 9
The Use of 2,4-D Dust ................................................................................................................................... 9
The Best Time to Spray ............................................................................................................................... 10
Other PGRs .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Dicamba .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Picloram .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Future challenges ........................................................................................................................................ 10
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................... 11

Arrisha Nayab

Introduction, types of herbicides, PGRS,sensitivity to PGRs,2,4-D, mechanism of

action of 2,4-D

Hafsa Wadood

From absorption to conclusion

Application of different PGRs to kill
weeds
Weeds
Weeds are undesirable plants that grow along with the cultivated crops that compete with the
crop for water, nutrients and light, make harvesting difficult and cause a considerable yield loss. 1

Figure 1Effects of weeds on crops

Herbicides
Herbicides are chemical compounds used to control unwanted plants called as weeds. These
chemicals are effective and quite reactive. Herbicides are the easy and cheap source for weed
control. They do not affect the soil texture and speared over weed parts. Herbicides can be
harmful to useful plants and environment.some plants are resistant to herbicdes and they cannot
affect them.

Herbicides can be two types:

Non-selective herbicides:
These herbicides have ability to kill most of the plant part and also known as broad-spectrum
herbicides.

Selective herbicides:
1
Varhney S, Khan MIR, Masood A, Per TS, Rasheed F, Khan NA, (2015) Contribution of Plant Growth Regulators in
Mitigation of Herbicidal Stress. J Plant Biochem Physiol 3: 160. doi:10.4172/2329-9029.1000160
These herbicides affect only certain types of plants and also called as narrow spectrum
herbicides.

Plant growth regulators

Plant Growth Regulators, also sometimes reffered to as plant growth hormones, refers to a group
of chemicals, both naturally occouring and synthetic, that are used in plant cell culture media to
facilate plant growth. Plant Growth Regulators are broadly divided into three groups:

Auxins, Cytokinins, and Other Plant Growth Regulators.

Most plant cell culture media include, at the very least, one auxin and one cytokinin. 2 Certain
so-called ' 'growth-regulating" compounds have found use as weed killers. Chief of these is 2,4-
D (or 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). Weed killers containing this chemical as the effective
ingredient are known by many trade names.

On the basis of structure of molecule herbicide can be classified into chlorophenoxy acid
herbicides behave as growth hormones of plants like auxin and causes hypertrophy by causing
lethal growth abnormalities. They are selective for broad-leaved or angiosperm plants, and not
effective over monocots and conifers. These herbicides are moderately persistent in the
environment, with a half-life in soil. The most common examples of Chlorophenoxy acid
herbicides are

1. 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)

2. 2,4,5-T (2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid)

3. MCPA (2-Methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid)

4. Silvex [2-(2,4,5-Trichlorophenoxy)-propionic acid]3( Fenoprop, or 2-(2,4,5-

trichlorophenoxy) propionic acid, is an herbicide and a plant growth regulator).

5. Mecoprop, or methylchlorophenoxypropionic acid (MCPP),( a commonly used weed

killers and "weed-and-feed" type lawn fertilizers. It is primarily used to control broadleaf
weeds).4others PGRs include

6. Benzoic Acids: dicamba (Banvel, Clarity, and a component of Marksman and Distinct)
7. Pyridinecarboxylic acids: clopyralid (Stinger, Lontrel, and a component of Curtail),
fluroxypyr (Starane, Spotlight, and Vista), picloram (Tordon) and triclopyr (Garlon and
Turflon Ester).

2
Torres, Kenneth C. Tissue Culture Techniques for Horticultural Crops.Chapman & Hall, New York, NY. 1989
3
https://chemistry.tutorvista.com/biochemistry/herbicide.html
4
Record in the Household Products Database of NLM
2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
2,4-D is a PGR and it can act as a herbicide that kills plants by changing the way certain cells
grow. 2,4-D comes in several chemical forms, including salts, esters, and an acid form. 2,4-D
was first used in the United States in the 1940s. Indole-3-acetic acid is the only naturally
occurring auxin hormone in plants.

Synthetic auxins are common in commercial agriculture for controlling fruit set and growth after
pruning on fruit trees. However, synthetic auxins inhibitors in the form of 2,4-D and MCPA,
when applied in high dosages, promote poor plant growth and plant death.2,4-D kills broadleaf
weeds but not most grasses. 2,4-D kills plants by causing the cells in the tissues that carry water
and nutrients to divide and grow without stopping. Herbicides that act this way are called auxin-
type herbicides.5

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was the first synthetic herbicide to be commercially

developed and has commonly been used as a broadleaf herbicide for over 60 years. It is a
selective herbicide that kills dicots without affecting monocots and act like auxins. Physiological
responses of dicots sensitive to auxinic herbicides include abnormal growth, senescence and
plant death. 6 2,4-D is commercially available in the following forms:

Table 1commercially available forms of 2,4-D

Weedtrine-ii, Aqua-Kleen,
2,4-D Foliar spary
Maler bane, Plantgard, Lawn- keep, Planotox and Barrage

Dichloro prop 2,4-DP, weedone 2,4-DP Foliar spary

Sensitivity of plants towards 2,4-D

2,4‐D is structurally and functionally analogous to the natural auxin IAA. That is, 2,4‐D
is not only structurally similar to IAA but is also biologically active as an auxin in plants.
Although 2,4‐D looks and acts like an auxin, plants cannot metabolize this phenoxy
herbicide as they can with IAA. This turns out to be the key reason 2,4‐D is able to kill
sensitive plants. Although 2,4‐D has been used in agriculture for more than half a
century, the molecular mode of 2,4‐D action is far from completely characterized.
However, because of this structural similarity to auxin, 2,4‐D, it was thought to act like
auxin at the molecular level.

5
http://npic.orst.edu/
6
Song, Y. (2014). Insight into the mode of action of 2, 4‐dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4‐D) as an herbicide. Journal
of integrative plant biology, 56(2), 106-113.
2,4-D as herbicide:
2,4‐D mainly kills plants in three ways:

1. altering the plasticity of the cell walls,

2. influencing the amount of protein production,
3. increasing ethylene production. 7

Effect of 2,4-D of plant tissue

Roots become thickened and stunted, phloem and xylem tissue in the stem disintegrates
or blocks, and leaf growth ceases. Uncontrolled, unsustainable growth ensues, causing
stem curl‐over, leaf withering, and eventual plant death. Even plant species resistant to
2,4‐D may become injured if it is applied during rapid cell division or during rapid
growth conditionsIn contrast to the main role of natural auxin, which is to promote plant
growth, auxinic herbicides, like 2,4‐D, kill plants.

Mechanism of action:
Plants sprayed with 2,4-D react in various ways. The first noticeable effect is in the stems and
leaves, which twist and bend, the stems sometimes forming loops and coils. In some plants, the
stems and leaves dry until the tops are completely dead; in others, the stems remain green for
several weeks, but may swell, develop cracks, and form callus tissue. Sometimes thick pads of
tissue develop along stems and at the joints. Often, numerous watery, translucent buds appear at
the crown but do not grow into new shoots. Before dropping, leaves of some woody plants
change their color to red or yellow, as though it were autumn. Several weeks after treatment,
seriously affected plants may show spongy, enlarged roots. The outer portion of the root may
slough off and leave wet, stringy cores that will later dry up or rot.

On most weeds, 2,4-D acts more slowly than other weed killers. It may require from four to eight
weeks for the weeds to die down completely. The effects of spraying show up more rapidly in
hot than in cool weather, but the end result is the same. Plants that form rosettes are especially
susceptible in the rosette stage. Other plants should be young and growing vigorously, with a
well-developed leaf surface. Old, mature plants respond slowly or not at all. All plants are more
easily killed as small seedlings, if application is made at that stage.

In general, broad-leaved plants are relatively susceptible to 2,4-D, but there are exceptions. For
example, it is usually easier to affect a permanent kill of broad-leaved annuals than of broad-
leaved perennials. Members of the grass family are more resistant to 2,4-D than are broad-
leaved plants, the chemical is being widely used as a selective spray in grain fields.

7
Song, Y. (2014). Insight into the mode of action of 2, 4‐dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4‐D) as an
herbicide. Journal of integrative plant biology, 56(2), p.107.
Natural auxins are usually inactivated very quickly by conjugation and degradation while 2,4‐D
is retained for long periods of time, and therefore works as a herbicide. Auxin and auxinic
herbicides induce growth by cell elongation as opposed to cell division. Hormone interplay is
important in the regulation of plant growth and development. There are several possible
mechanisms involved in 2,4‐D controlled plant death mediated by multiple hormones such as
ethylene and abscisic acid (ABA).

Death of most plant tissues treated with 2,4-D is caused by the accumulation of abscisic acid
(ABA) and ethylene inducing oxidative stress induced by high ROS production.8 First, one of the
most well‐known effects of excess auxinic herbicides on dicots is the overproduction of the plant
hormone ethylene.Unlike natural auxins, which are rapidly degraded by plants 2,4‐D lasts for a
long time resulting in the overproduction of ethylene, which may result in a number of
herbicide‐related responses, including epinasty and senescence. Ethylene has the simplest
structure among phytohormones but plays an important role in a wide range of physiological
reactions involved in plant developmental processes and environmental stresses. The synthesis of
ethylene is induced by various environmental stimuli and is involved in plant response to
drought, wound, defense against pathogens, and auxinic herbicides .The ethylene biosynthesis in
plants starts from the production of S‐adenosyl‐ methionine (SAM) through methionine and ATP
combination, which is catalyzed by the enzyme SAM synthase. A further reaction, which is also
known as the rate‐limiting step of ethylene biosynthesis is the conversion of SAM to
1‐aminocyclopropane‐1‐carboxylic acid (ACC) by the enzyme ACC synthase (ACS). The final
step for ethylene production is catalyzed by ACC oxidase (ACO) producing ethylene, hydrogen
cyanide, and carbon dioxide from ACC. The hydrogen cyanide is converted into a harmless
compound by another enzyme. Both ACS and ACO are encoded by multigene families in plants,
and their expression patterns are regulated by several environmental stimuli including 2,4‐D. In

8
Grossmann, K. 2010. Auxin herbicides: current status of mechanism and mode of action. Pest Management
Science 66: 113–120.
the potato plant, various auxins with different concentrations induce an increase of ethylene
production. 2,4‐D at 10 mM, NAA at 50 mM, and IAA at 100 mM were found to be the most
effective doses in stimulating ethylene production, respectively (Arteca 1982. Another effect of
excess ethylene production in response to 2,4‐D is the stimulation of ABA production (Figure 3).
The rate‐limiting factor of ABA biosynthesis is the conversion of 9‐ cis‐neoxanthin to
cis‐xanthoxin by 9‐cis‐epoxycarotenoid dioxigenases (NCED), and the plastid enzyme NCED
catalysis is encoded by a family of NCED genes (Nambara and Marion‐ Poll 2005). Several
experiments show that 2,4‐D induces theexpression of NCED genes, consequently increasing the
production of ABA (Hansen and Grossmann 2000). 2,4‐D may induce ethylene to induce the
production of ABA and ABA directly mediates plant death via stomatal closure. Reactive
oxygen species (ROS) is considered the main toxic effect caused by the application of 2,4‐D. It is
involved in 2,4‐D‐ induced epinasty by promoting cell expansion and vascular tissue
proliferation and signals molecules to induce cellular response against stress conditions (Mittler
et al. 2004; Pazmino et al. 2011). The increase of ROS production induced by 2,4‐D is a direct
consequence of the activation of specific enzymes such as xanthine oxido‐reductase (XOD)
involved in ureide metabolism, acyl‐CoA oxidase (ACX) involved in fatty acid b‐oxidation and
jasmonic acid biosynthesis, and lipoxygenase (LOX). NADPH oxidases from the PM have been
considered as another main resource of ROS induced by 2,4‐D.

Figure 2 mechanism of action of 2,4-D

 Another important small molecule, nitric oxide (NO), appears to be key in 2,4‐D response9.
According to the University of Florida, 24 known weeds have developed cross-resistance to four
of the most common auxin inhibitors over 60 years of use. Although resistance to auxin
inhibitors is a cause for concern, the University of Florida states that the low percentage of
resistance reported are good results for a synthetic herbicide used over the course of six
decades.10

Absorption of 2,4-D
When applied to dicotyledonous plants at effective doses, 2,4‐D is absorbed through roots,
stems, and leaves, and is translocated to the meristems of the plant.

Effect of 2,4-D on Soil

In some instances, the use of 2,4-D has resulted in sterilization of the soil. some crops, such as
broccoli, cabbage, sugar beets, tomatoes, beans, and root crops have been damaged when grown
in fields where 2,4-D had been used. However, in a number of cases, extra large amounts of the
chemical had been applied, and most of the fields had remained dry from the time of application
until just before the crop was planted.

Disappearance of 2,4-D
Herbicides vary in their rate of disappearance from the soil because of differences in their
volatility, susceptibility to decomposition by soil micro-organisms, sensitivity to sunlight,
chemical reactions, and solubility. Certain soil micro-organisms effectively decompose
herbicides such as 2,4-D in a short time. Tests have shown that 2,4-D leaches out of warm, moist
soils in thirty to sixty days, but it may remain in cool, dry soils for six months or longer. Tests
also indicate that more 2,4-D is retained by heavy than by light soils.

The Use of 2,4-D Dust

Tests to date indicate that while 2,4-D applied as a dust is effective in killing weeds, slightly
more 2,4-D per acre may be required than when applied as a spray. Until some satisfactory
method is developed for control of drift toward susceptible crop plants, it will be dangerous to
use dust near any crops except grain.

9
, Song, Y. (2014). p.108.
10
https://www.ehow.com/list_6903884_effects-hormones-used-weed-killers.html
The Best Time to Spray
Weeds should be sprayed while still young and growing vigorously. If plants are sprayed when
they are old or near maturity, the chemical will have a slow, uneven reaction.

The amount of 2,4-D used depends upon the thickness of the weed growth.

Other PGRs
Dicamba
It is used for broadleaf annual and perennial weed control primarily in maize, sorghum, cereal
crops and other monocot crops.

Picloram
Picloram kills or damages annual and perennial broadleaf herbs and woody plants. It acts as an
auxin mimic.

Future challenges
Only the cereals and other grasses are resistant to 2,4-D. Apparently most other crop plants are
injured by contact with the chemical, some of them seriously. For this reason, the use of 2,4-D
has so far been limited to control of weeds in grain fields, grass pastures, and lawns. Beans, peas,
lettuce, tomato, cabbage, broccoli, sugar beets, alfalfa, and many other crops are extremely
sensitive to small quantities of the chemical. Low doses of auxin herbicides such as 2,4-D on
sensitive plants can often cause visual symptoms ranging from minor leaf malformations to
severe stem twisting depending on the species, active ingredient, dose, and stage of growth at
time of exposure.

Certain weeds are developing resistance against PGRs so we can face challenges in future related
to herbicide resistance and super weeds. There are 32 reported cases of weeds resistant to the
synthetic auxin group of herbicides (Heap 2015). In future there is a risk of target site and non-
target-site resistance (NTSR) mechanisms to 2,4-D. The rate at which herbicide is applied can
affect the selection for herbicide-resistant weed populations.11

Certain PGRs may be harmful to the health of human as well as animals.

While spraying weeds drift can damage potentially susceptible and useful plants. The mechanism
of action of certain PGRs as a herbicide is still unknown and it can cause potential challenges in
near futre.

11
Peterson, M. A., McMaster, S. A., Riechers, D. E., Skelton, J., & Stahlman, P. W. (2016). 2, 4-D past, present, and
future: a review. Weed Technology, 30(2), 303-345.
The effect of 2,4-D on animals and plants depends on the form of 2,4-D. Some of the ester forms
of 2,4-D can be very toxic to fish and other aquatic life. The salt forms may be only slightly toxic
to aquatic animals. Aquatic animals are more sensitive to 2,4-D as water temperature rises. 2,4-D
may be moderately toxic to practically non-toxic to birds if they eat it. 2,4-D is practically non-
toxic to honeybees. It is not expected to be a hazard to other beneficial insects.

2,4-D is rapidly eliminated and has a low potential for bioaccumulation or bioconcentration.2,4-
D goes through different changes in the environment depending on its form. Most of the time,
2,4-D breaks down in soil so that half of the original amount is gone in 1-14 days One form of
2,4-D, the butoxyethyl ester, had a much longer half-life in aquatic sediment of 186 days.

2,4-D is broken down by bacteria in water and in soil. Water alone can also break down 2,4-D.
2,4-D has been found at low levels in shallow groundwater and streams in both rural and urban
areas.

In humans, 2,4-D is not absorbed well through the skin or lungs, but it is absorbed into the body
if swallowed. The acid and salt forms of 2,4- D can cause severe eye irritation. People who
drank products containing 2,4- D vomited, had diarrhea, headaches, and were confused or
aggressive. Some people also had kidney failure and skeletal muscle damage. People who spilled
2,4-D on their skin developed skin irritation. Breathing 2,4-D vapors can cause coughing, a
burning feeling in the airway, and dizziness.

Conclusion
Despite having been discovered more than 70 years ago, 2,4-D continues to provide significant
benefits to farmers, ranchers, homeowners, land managers, and many others who work to control
weeds. The body of research generated by hundreds of scientists over this time frame is truly
amazing and forms the basis for much of our knowledge of herbicide action and physiology.
Studies conducted as early as the 1940s and 1950s must be admired for their contributions to
weed science, especially considering the tools of the day. More recent investigations of 2,4-D
mechanisms of action and general activity in plants provide unique insights into the function of
plant auxins. Innovations around this molecule are expanding its utility and helping to address
issues associated with its use, extending its useful life well into the future.