Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx

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Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

Step change in the context of comminution

R.A. Bearman ⇑
Bear Rock Solutions Pty. Ltd., PO Box 150, Melville 6956, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Much has been written about innovation and the need for ‘‘game-changing’’ step change. There is no
Available online xxxx doubt that there are many challenges facing the mining and minerals industry and hence it is appropriate
that the industry examines the level of response required. ‘‘Step Change’’ should not be regarded as a
Keywords: tightly defined, prescriptive descriptor, rather the industry needs to consider what it should mean in
Comminution the context of the current and future challenges.
Sorting methods In terms of comminution, the area bears much of the burden for the use of energy in the mining–
Liberation
processing system. Given this specific issue it is reasonable to consider that step change should be
targeted at the reduction of the energy input per unit of final product. It is important to consider energy
in terms of the final output, as without this, effort could be misdirected.
To ensure the maximum effectiveness of innovation in this field, comminution must be regarded as a
component of the wider system that encompasses the size reduction from the in situ rock mass to a sale-
able product. In regard to the total system, some of the key considerations are philosophical, not techno-
logical. Such points include the need to simplify circuits, increase flexibility, examine the impact of
variability and consider the end-game.
In essence the total system is not about breaking rocks to a size, it is about breaking only what requires
size reduction, to the point at which a saleable product can be generated. With this in mind the context
for step change is set and this forms the basis for the discussion.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The mining industry, as a whole, depends upon the ability to
innovate. To many observers of the mining industry, the focus on
innovation seems at-odds, with what they consider to be a conser-
vative industry. It seems likely that the conservative image, often
cited by those not directly engaged with mining, stems from the
old World nature of the business and its reliance on heavy
engineering.
The need to be innovative stems from the uncertainty that is
implicit when dealing with geological materials. At a basic level
the characteristics of a natural material such as rock are variable
and cannot be compared to other system inputs from different
industry sectors. As an example, a particle of ore, with variability
in terms of strength, abrasivity, grade, mineralogy, size and colour,
is in no-way comparable with a bolt used in construction that is
manufactured from a well-defined material, with strength and per-
formance characteristics that adhere to close tolerances.
Simply on the basis of variability in single rocks, the mining
industry must be flexible in the way it treats and processes mate-
⇑ Tel./fax: +61 8 9330 9175.
E-mail address: ted.bearman@bear-rock.com
rials through the total system, but as is widely known, variability
does not stop there.
In considering the entire mining and processing system, vari-
ability, both inherent and induced, can be extreme. The areas
where the variability is most often manifested include:
 Ore deposit: shape, geology, consistency, location.
 Ore/waste material: strength, grade, mineralogy, abrasivity.
 Bulk properties: size distribution, grade versus size distribution,
flow characteristics.
 Logistics: mining method, transport type/network.
 Customer requirements: acceptable product envelopes, penalties
for deleterious materials, consistency of demand.
 Commodity prices and what constitutes ore.
As can be seen from the list above, not only does the mining and
processing industry and hence our systems, have to deal with input
complexity, but extra uncertainty can be added during the course
of the system and even in the delivery of product.
Complexity and variability within the system is further com-
pounded by the external factors that are applied. In the current
context, the main external factors that are facing the industry
can be summarized as follows:

0892-6875/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2012.06.010

Please cite this article in press as: Bearman, R.A. Step change in the context of comminution. Miner. Eng. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
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2 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx

 People. Table 1
 Demand for commodities. Application areas for the term innovation (Garcia and Calantone, 2002).

 Energy and water. New to New what New uses

 Sustainability and license to operate. World Technology Improvements/changes
Industry Product line Development skills
If the inherent and induced system complexity is added to the Scientific Product benefits/ Marketing/sales/distribution
external factors, then innovation is the only answer. Innovation community features skills
Market place Product design Managerial skills
must be seen as a way of ensuring long term business resilience Company Process Learning/experience/
and providing the foundation for growth. Is such a statement a bet- knowledge
ter way of framing what innovation can be for our industry? Customer Service Quality/benefits
As part of the associated question, how much do we need to Competition
Customers
innovate? Is base line innovation sufficient, or does the magnitude
Customer need
of the challenges dictate that the industry must seek huge, trans- Consumption patterns
formational step-change through innovation?

2. Levels of innovation

There are a plethora of definitions when it comes to the subject Table 2

of innovation and indeed the mere use of the term has been one of Revolutionary changes within the mining sector since 1900 (Bartos, 2007).

the defining shifts in how the subject of change is framed. Fig. 1 Commodity/procedure Innovation
shows data where use of the fragment ‘‘Innovat’’ has been exam- Coal Long haul extraction
ined in the titles of published papers. Of particular note is the point Continuous mining
from that graph that shows that the increase between 2006 and Draglines
2008, is of the same magnitude as the increase that was seen over Copper Flotation
the previous 40 years. SX-EW
When considering the subject of innovation there are several Grade control Kriging
aspects that have contributed to the explosion in the discussion Computer modelling
centred around innovation. Gold Heap leaching
Some of the rapid increase has been due to the simple substitu- Autoclaving
tion of innovation and its derivative terms. As an example there Nickel Pressure acid leach
has been a widespread replacement of terms such as research Scheduling Operations research
and development, with innovation. GPS truck location
Another major contribution is from the width of use that can be Smelting Flash furnaces
found in-and-around innovation. Table 1 shows a snapshot of the Top submerged lance smelting
width of linguistic application. Surface mining Open pit mining
Many of the areas covered in Table 1 can be considered as sim- SAG mill circuits
ply doing things better. As previously stated in this paper, the min- Underground mining Ammonium nitrate explosives
ing industry has always been innovative in this aspect and hence it Electric and carbide mine lamps
is not this area that requires more effort. Rock bolts
The more critical area of innovation is that of the revolutionary Uranium In situ leaching
or step-change. Bartos (2007) gave a summary of areas that he con-
sidered to represent revolutionary change in the mining sector
since 1900. Table 2 provides the list suggested by Bartos.
Any list, such as that shown in Table 2, will always be a source Given the pressures and constraints that are being applied to
of discussion as to what should be included. Regardless of the exact the mining industry, it appears that there needs to be greater effort
content, it is fair to say that the track record of mining is not as applied to delivering revolutionary or step-change innovation. The
impressive in the step-change area, compared to the scale of incre- following section examines where such an effort could be
mental innovation that has been undertaken in the same period. concentrated.

Fig. 1. Publications with ‘Innovat’ in the title from two sources, as a percent of annual additions (Fagerberg et al., 2011).

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 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
3. Step change in comminution
The figures regarding the use of energy in comminution and the
need to apply greater energy to deposits of declining grade, are
well known. The classic conundrum is that the head grade of the
plant feed is declining (see Fig. 2) and thus to extract the same
amount of metal, more energy is needed. Given that comminution
represents a high proportion of the energy requirement (see Fig. 3),
it is suggested that comminution is an area that could deliver real
gains, if a transformational, or step-change, can be made in the way
comminution is undertaken.
It is important to note that in terms of comminution, it is the
overall energy requirement that is critical. Any step-change initia-
tive must consider that comminution can no longer be considered
as:
 the breakage of rock material to a point whereby;
the product can be sold, or,
treated and sold.
Rather, comminution needs to be defined in a manner more
appropriate to the 21st century. Two proposed definitions are gi-
ven below:
 the application of minimum size reduction to value bearing
material, whilst still generating a saleable product or a product
requiring minimum further upgrading, or,
 the preferential application of energy into value-bearing mate-
rial to generate a saleable product or a product requiring mini-
mum further upgrading.
As a further illustration of the importance of change in the way
comminution is approached, Norgate and Haque (2010) presented
data on the impact of grind size on the total energy embodied in
the production of copper. Fig. 4 shows the relationships outlined
in the aforementioned paper.
Fig. 4, in particular, shows the importance of grind size in a
world of decreasing ore grade and again raises the question regard-
ing how much comminution should be undertaken.
Working on the basis of the revised definitions and the conse-
quences of not changing, the following sections examine an area
Fig. 2. Decline in copper head grade (Batterham and Elvish, 2009).
Please cite this article in press as: Bearman, R.A. Step change in the context of comminution. Miner. Eng. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.mineng.2012.06.010
3
that has potential to provide a step-change related to how commi-
nution is considered.
3.1. Recovery and mass yield behaviour
It is relatively common to define the recovery versus yield for
various separation purposes. Newcrest Mining Ltd., as part of on-
going work have defined curves for various ore types at a range
of sizes.
The graphs shown in Fig. 5 illustrate typical recovery versus
yield for different material types. Fig. 5a shows an extreme exam-
ple of recovery versus grade behaviour, where greater than 80%
recovery of the valuable content can be found in only 5% of the
feed. Fig. 5b shows a more usual example whereby 80% recovery
can be found in 60% of the feed. In the final graph.
The graphs in Fig. 5 relate to a certain size fraction. Such behav-
iour is heavily size dependent and as such the variation with size
needs to be understood.
In considering graphs as shown in Fig. 5, there are several crit-
ical factors, namely:
 Size at which such behaviour is exhibited.
 Is the behaviour an inherent signature of the material.
 Is the behaviour enhanced or degraded by comminution
processes.
 How widespread the behaviour is in the ore body.
3.2. Size versus grade
Ideally a size versus grade behaviour will be seen at coarse
sizes, even in situ. There are certainly examples of significant size
versus grade behaviour. Fig. 6 shows test data where 80% of the to-
tal gold content sits in the 50 mm fraction, which only represents
55% of the Run-of-Mine feed rate. The data shown in Fig. 6 was
generated as part of an on-going project being undertaken by New-
crest Mining Ltd.
When confronted by the option of treating nearly half the total
tonnes, whist still recovering 80% of the value, the option of coarse
waste rejection becomes interesting. The practicalities of mass
waste rejection at such sizes, include:
4 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
Fig. 3. Contribution of current energy use by equipment across the mining industry (Powell and Bye, 2009).
Fig. 4. Combined effect of ore grade and grind size on embodied energy for
pyrometallurgical copper production (Norgate and Haque, 2010).
 Where? – in-pit, after primary crushing.
 Materials handling of ore, waste and middlings.
 Equipment required.
 How relationship may change with comminution.
 Impact on reserve/resource calculations and statements.
In reality the individual questions above are all heavily inter-re-
lated. One scenario could be to directly treat material from the
Run-of-Mine (RoM) muckpile. If such an option is considered, then
any excavator would need to be matched with the separation
equipment and there would need to be a system installed to handle
the possible multiple streams that are produced.
Please cite this article in press as: Bearman, R.A. Step change in the context of comminution. Miner. Eng. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.mineng.2012.06.010
In the coarse separation end of the system, there is certainly
equipment available that can handle the size of feed rock and also
the rate. One example of this type of equipment is a rotating trom-
mel, Nirox (2012). Although, not widely seen in the mining indus-
try, there are certainly numerous applications in the quarry sector.
Fig. 7 shows a picture of a unit manufactured by Nirox that has an
internal barrel diameter of 2.3 m. Such a unit can handle a feed rate
of 1000–1500 tph with feed size up to 1200 mm and undertake a
three way split down to 50 mm.
The effectiveness of such coarse separation units is dependent
on a number of factors, but the process performance of such equip-
ment is being currently evaluated by a number of sites. In addition
to the separation performance, there could also be related benefits
from the mode of screening applied. The tumbling nature of the
trommel, may provide abrasion of the particle surfaces. If value
bearing material is preferentially associated with joint surfaces,
(i.e. a bricks and mortar model where grade is held in the ‘‘mortar’’
between barren ‘‘bricks’’) or other discontinuities, then such a tum-
bling effect may enhance size versus grade behaviour by sending
the abraded, ore-bearing material to the fines stream.
Using equipment such as seen in Fig. 7, several in-pit options
exist, including:
 Direct tip from excavators.
 Front-end Loader feeding from stockpile.
 Truck tip, using a suitable feed arrangement.
Another over-riding question is related to the optimum point in
the system for separation. For instance, would better waste rejec-
tion be achieved after primary, secondary or tertiary crushing?
Crushing is the main point-in-case, as the incremental cost of
multiple stages of crushing is not as great as grinding and also
the handling of smaller particle sizes can often be easier. In terms
of a separation and upgrade solely on the basis of size, screening
 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx 5

Fig. 5. Examples of recovery versus mass yield curves.

Fig. 6. Example of gold distribution by size.

systems are highly effective at the smaller feed sizes. There are sev-
eral such separation projects reported in the literature, even at
high feed rates. Burns and Grimes (1986) reported on the use of
size based separation using a screening plant at Bougainville.
In terms of dry, size based separation, there is a practical limit
which is dictated by the limits for crushing. In most cases crushing
plant will struggle to produce product below 14–20 mm, without
significant re-cycle crushing. The point with any size separation
is to use the minimum amount of material treatment and commi-
nution and hence moving into major re-cycle crushing and screen-
ing represents a much larger investment and also the re-cycle
crushing will often have a detrimental impact on the grade versus
size behaviour.
Any mode of operation must be carefully considered in light of
the overall cost associated with installing the additional plant and
the resulting benefit. Depending on the situation, costs such as
materials handling can be a major impediment to economic
operation.
Such analysis requires that a full understanding of the recovery,
mass yield and size cut-point is developed. The following sections
will suggest ways of analysing such a situation.
3.3. Nature of the grade split
Particularly with reference to waste rejection early in the min-
ing–processing system, the natural occurrence of size versus grade
behaviour and its persistence through further processing stages are
of critical interest.
The geological setting and association of ore and host rock type
are major factors when considering how and where to find an eco-
nomic waste rejection point. Heavily disseminated deposits, with
little strength variation across the host material and barren mate-
rial poses the biggest problem. In such cases, other approaches
may be required. However, in the case of ore controlled within a
certain geological area and therefore associated with a specific host
material, there can often be strength variations seen between the

Please cite this article in press as: Bearman, R.A. Step change in the context of comminution. Miner. Eng. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
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6 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx

Fig. 7. Sketch of 1500 tph mobile trommel screen capable of treating RoM material, Stafford (2012).

host and barren material. In such cases breaking the harder and
softer material types will, in many instances, lead to at least some
of the ore/hardness/size relationships being preserved.
The term ‘‘liberation’’ is usually reserved for typical beneficia-
tion and concentration sizes, i.e. sub 200 lm. In the case of waste
rejection or ‘‘waste liberation’’ the sizes need to be much larger,
but even at this increased size, some of the evidence found in tra-
ditional studies suggest that liberation generally occurs at some
critical value of particle size during comminution processes, Bradt
et al. (1995). In the coarser area the trade-off that must be consid-
ered is the loss of value to waste, simply due to the liberation being
less complete than would be considered in the sub 200 lm level.
In terms of the nature of the grade split, non-size related splits
need to be considered. In these areas the technologies often cited
include ore sorting and gravity separation methods. Ore sorting
uses the principle that some component of the ore, or waste, can
be identified by the use of sensors and then individual particles
can be accepted or rejected using pneumatic or mechanical means.
The typical range of sensors available is summarized in Fig. 8.
Using the particle-by-particle sorting techniques, high levels of
selectivity can be obtained, however, there are disadvantages that
include:
 Throughput is restricted – throughput being proportional to the
particle size.
 Feed size needs to be within a 3:1 range (top size: bottom size).
 Feed presentation needs to meet specific requirements.
 Amount of supporting equipment can be onerous, i.e. clean
compressed air, water and a stable power supply.
Such electronic ore sorting is well covered in the literature
and from publications from suppliers. Bergmann (2009) and
Manouchehri (2004) provide an overview of the general technol-
ogy areas.
Such ore sorters can generally treat discrete feed fractions with-
in the range from 300 mm to 10 mm, typical ranges would be
300 + 100 mm, 100 + 30 mm. As the feed size decreases, the
throughput drops considerably and hence for the smaller sizes,
other separation techniques need to be considered.
If the aim of coarse liberation is maintained, then techniques
still need to be operable and practical at sizes above the norm con-
sidered for liberation. In this area techniques such as gravity sepa-
ration and dense media are most often considered.
Work reported from Gekko Systems Pty. Ltd., Australia, has
been targeted at such coarse concentration. In the work reported,
the main technique applied is the In-line Pressure Jig (IPJ) in con-
junction with comminution equipment to generate the required
feed size. Modular, self-contained units have been tested at a num-
ber of sites and Gray et al. (2011) provides details of the main
applications.

Fig. 8. Range of sensors available, or under development (⁄) by CommoDas-Ultrasort, after Bergmann, 2009.

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 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
Fig. 9. Typical form of the Andrew–Mika diagram for fine liberation.
4. Coarse liberation – a step change opportunity
The investigation and understanding of liberation at fine sizes is
well studied and many key papers have been published in the field
over the last three decades. Workers such as King and his co-work-
ers added much to the debate around the development of relation-
ships for liberation, size and the impact of comminution on the
liberation characteristics (King, 1992; Schneider, 1995; Sutherland
and Fandrich, 1996; Fandrich et al., 1997).
4.1. Analysis of fine liberation
A useful tool in the analysis of liberation, is the Andrews–Mika
(AM) diagram. This type of diagram has been used for several pur-
poses over the years, but their most extensive use has been in rep-
resenting the grade–size–liberation relationship. As seen in Fig. 9,
the axes show liberation as a proportion (vertical axis), grade as
a proportion of mineral liberation (horizontal axis, where 1.0
equals fully liberated) and the depth axis shows the size fraction
within the distribution that was analysed. Other uses for the tech-
nique have included the incorporation of density intervals. Fig. 9
shows a typical Andrews–Mika diagram.
When the material represented in Fig. 9 is broken further the
overall behaviour seen in the Andrews–Mika diagram for the prog-
eny particles, may mimic the behaviour of the feed particles. How-
ever, due to size related changes in mineralogy or composition, it is
possible that the form of the three dimensional relationship could
change.
In coarse ‘‘liberation’’ workers are faced with a different situa-
tion to the fine particle area. In the coarse area, which can be de-
fined as 300–10 mm, the principles and terminology deployed
needs to be different.
4.2. Analysis of coarse liberation
For coarse liberation a direct analogy to the A–M diagram is dif-
ficult to construct. One commonality is that, there must be an axis
for size intervals. Size intervals are fundamental, as the focus area
for beneficiation is to remove barren material as early in the total
mining and processing system as possible. Hence the knowledge of
high ore recovery at large sizes and low yields is critical.
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7
The ‘‘liberation’’ term as applied in an A–M diagram refers to ac-
cess to individual grains, but in coarse liberation this is not appli-
cable. In the coarse areas of the size spectrum there is never an
expectation that grains of individual minerals will be exposed
and liberated. At a size of 300 mm, grains of the valuable mineral
may be present on the surface, but as a percentage of full libera-
tion, the single mineral grain may be negligible.
In the case of coarse particles, it is therefore suggested that the
degree of liberation axis is replaced by cumulative total metal con-
tent as a proportion. In this way the graph is dealing with a more
macro representation of liberation.
The normalized grade axis as used in A–M diagrams is highly
applicable in the case of fine preferential liberation. In coarse liber-
ation there is much greater interest in the mass that can be re-
moved from the plant feed without having a detrimental impact
on the head grade of the feed, i.e. the interest is in the removal
of barren material and how much can be safely removed.
With the mass aspect in-mind, the normalized grade axis can be
replaced with a proportional mass yield axis.
If the two dimensional aspect is examined first, then the type of
relationship illustrated in Fig. 10 is likely to be seen. In Fig. 10 two
extreme points on a coarse feed stream are examined, namely, the
300 + 200 mm and 30 + 10 mm fractions.
The interpretation of Fig. 10 shows that in the 300 + 200 mm
fractions the proportion of the total metal content found in the
Fig. 10. Coarse liberation data for specified feed fractions.
8 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
Fig. 11. Full coarse liberation diagram references.
fraction is small and where it is present it can only be recovered by
retaining practically all of the feed found in that fraction. In the
case of the 30 + 10 mm fraction approximately 30% of the total
contained metal in the entire size distribution is contained in the
specific 30 + 10 mm fraction and all of this metal can be recov-
ered within 50% of the total feed mass represented by the fraction.
In order to make more informed decisions about the best size
for coarse beneficiation and the mass yield that can be used, i.e.
the rejection rate, a three dimensional graph, is proposed. Although
not fully analogous with the A–M approach, it is suggested that it is
a useful way to consider coarse liberation. The full feed coarse size
distribution in the 300 + 10 mm range is examined in Fig. 11.
Using Fig. 11, it is possible to determine that the coarser fraction
really represent only a small percentage of the total contained
metal.
In the world of coarse beneficiation, Fig. 11 poses the question
as to the most viable size and/or mass yield cut-point.
The trade-off that is required involves the consideration of loss
in metal recovery, versus reduction in the amount of material for
processing and the associated financial implications.
In terms of a straight size based split, Fig. 11 suggests that it is
possible to reject all +150 mm material for a metal content loss of
7%.
The other way of approaching the split of material is to sense or
measure the material and use this as the basis of a mass split. The-
oretically if a sensor based sorter could be applied to the individual
size fractions, as is the mode of operation of the commercially
available machines, then a mass yield of 80% could be targeted.
At the 80% yield point, again the metal loss would be 7%. If however
the mass yield was reduced to 60%, i.e. 40% rejection, then 19% of
metal would be lost. Such an approach would, however, dictate
that all fractions must be sorted and given that current sorters
are deployed on tightly specified feed fractions, the number of ma-
chines would be large.
The usefulness of Fig. 11 is related to the fact that it by using the
recovery of total metal content versus yield versus size fraction,
the total size distribution of the feed stream is inherently included
in the data set.
5. Modification of coarse beneficiation behaviour
The data shown in Fig. 11 can be defined for a specific feed
stream. It is highly pertinent to consider the changes that may oc-
cur to the behaviour as noted in Fig. 11 in the light of further com-
Please cite this article in press as: Bearman, R.A. Step change in the context of comminution. Miner. Eng. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.mineng.2012.06.010
minution processes. There is much debate as the scale at which
coarse beneficiation should be considered and whether events
such as primary crushing would change the recovery behaviour.
To some extent the recovery behaviour and the response to further
comminution will be dictated by the nature of the relationship be-
tween the grade bearing material and the comminution character-
istics of the material. As an example, if the value bearing material is
associated with a weak host material, then further comminution
processes will have a tendency to comminute the weaker material
more and therefore further concentration of grade will occur into
the finer fractions. There will of course be contamination from
the comminution of the harder waste material, but it is suggested
that the rate of fines upgrading will more than offset the contribu-
tion from the breakage of the harder waste fraction into the finer
fractions.
Most forms of mechanical compressive, single particle breakage
would be assumed to deliver similar fines upgrading, in accordance
with the above discussion.
Under traditional single particle breakage, the amount of inter-
particle, or grain boundary breakage that will promote liberation,
is in most cases, slight. Such behaviour is an artefact of the type
of breakage and how the stress is introduced into the rock
particles.
Essentially all rocks eventually fail due to tensile strength being
exceeded. The confusion often arises as the mechanical delivery is
usually in the form of compression. Massive compressive forces
may cause local compressive failure, but outside of the impact
point the stress field generated will cause the particle to fail in
tension.
Blasting is a classic case of massive compressive failure close to
the detonation zone. Outside this zone of pulverization, the major-
ity of fractures are caused by the gases expanding or failing joints/
disconformities between blocks. Modifications to the basic blast
design can generate further failure through the interaction of stress
fields. Modifications to the energy intensity delivered to various
areas of the blast can be implemented and as such this opens the
potential for energy application targeted for selectivity. Such an
approach is outlined by Powell and Bye (2009). In their work they
use high quality drill or down-the-hole data to closely identify
areas of interest and in such areas apply dramatically different
blast designs. Data reported from trials indicate that selective
breakage can be delivered via this method, but changing blast de-
signs so dramatically is not necessarily easy in a practical situation.
As with any such discussion the value needs to be weighed against
 R.A. Bearman / Minerals Engineering xxx (2012) xxx–xxx
the added cost associated with extra, or different, designs to give
the overall business case.
Very high strain rate breakage, as can be achieved in blasting,
has been the subject of considerable research, but mainly for pur-
poses other than liberation.
Much attention has been given to the energy efficiency of novel
breakage technologies, but a more critical aspect of these forms of
comminution is the ability of the technologies to induce preferen-
tial liberation. Such pre-conditioning is an essential part of the
modification of liberation behaviour and the ability to modify the
recovery–yield–size relationship.
High Pressure Grinding Rolls (HPGR) have always been associ-
ated with the concepts of particle damage, microcracking, prefer-
ential liberation and selective breakage. In most instances HPGR
appears to provide enhanced access for reagents, as described by
Kodali et al. (2011). In terms of the generation of preferential liber-
ation through selective breakage, Fandrich et al. (1997) found evi-
dence to suggest that confined particle bed breakage does generate
selective breakage. Should this be a widespread effect, then there
could be an opportunity to modify the behaviour seen in Fig. 11
to amplify the naturally occurring concentration of grade.
Microwave rock breakage uses two modes dependent on the
internal composition of the feed material. If water is present within
the particles, the predominant mechanism is the rapid expansion
of the superheated steam that is generated as the water trans-
forms. The rapid expansion causes high strain rates to be generated
and the rock will fail catastrophically. Where there is a significant
difference in grain and cement/boundary strength, this mechanism
will cause preferential liberation. The second microwave breakage/
damage mechanism can be attributed to crystals or grains heating
and expanding at different rates, as determined by the dielectric
constant of the materials. Such differential expansion caused inter-
granular breakage. In such cases the incidence of preferential liber-
ation is higher than in the steam based mechanism, where the
explosive nature of the events can just simply cause intra-granular
catastrophic failure.
The mechanisms seen within microwave comminution have
been widely studied (Jones et al., 2005, 2007; Kingman et al.,
2004) and are therefore well defined. Despite the extensive effort,
the main impact of the treatment on preferential breakage and
selective breakage, still appears to be weakening, or pre-condition-
ing (Amankwah and Ofori-Sarpong, 2011).
Electric Pulse Disintegration (EPD), although promoted many
decades ago is still the subject of much debate as to the actual
mechanisms of failure. Andres (2010) reviews the postulated
mechanism for failure in an EPD environment. There seems to be
agreement that at the lower intensity levels the breakage is due
to the generation of an electro-hydraulic pulse. Therefore in es-
sence the rock particles are simply subjected to a shock-wave sim-
ilar in nature to a mechanical impulse force. Studies of some of
these devices, even show that the product size distribution is sim-
ilar to those achieved from mechanical crushing. In an extension of
this mechanism, much more extensive pulverization is delivered.
There are two main mechanisms that may explain the more
extensive damage, namely:
 Generation of multiple stress waves lead to stress wave interac-
tion similar to that seen in certain forms of explosive based
blasting.
 Generation of plasma pathways in the rock that follow lines of
weakness, with the interaction essentially causing the rock to
disintegrate from the forces generated internally in the particle.
There are several workers who suggest that the application of
EPD, under certain circumstances, will cause selective breakage
and induce preferential liberation, i.e. Wang et al. (2011, 2012),
Please cite this article in press as: Bearman, R.A. Step change in the context of comminution. Miner. Eng. (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.mineng.2012.06.010
9
Van der Wielen et al. (submitted for publication). The area appears
to require further research, as the fundamental mechanism is not
fully understood and the amenability of materials to EPD is not
uniform.
In the discussions above, the basic premise is that even from the
natural state the concentration effect is dominant. On the basis of
geological setting, not all ore deposits will inevitably display this
kind of behaviour.
Deposits which have finely and evenly dispersed mineral con-
tent, not associated with differential strength in the host material,
do not seem to display natural upgrading behaviour. If such behav-
iour does not appear naturally, are there options to apply breakage
techniques that will cause preferential behaviour ?
6. Conclusions
The mining industry is having to respond to a series of unprec-
edented challenges. The on-going incremental innovation work is
absolutely essential and this will ensure that the industry contin-
ues to improve and to keep pace with local pressures.
To address the greater pressures facing, not just the industry,
but the wider community, there is a need for revolutionary or
step-change. In this paper, it is suggested that a potential focus
area for step-change should be the understanding and exploitation
of the relationship between recovery, size and upgradability. Such
work should not be considered as simply re-visiting known effects.
Through an increased understanding of the geometallurgy of
deposits, more thorough investigations of natural characteristics
and possible modification of behaviour, there appears the opportu-
nity to be more proactive in defining the recovery–yield–size
relationship.
The ability to understand and tailor such a fundamental rela-
tionship, raises many questions in regard to how recovery should
be viewed and where intervention will add greatest value.
Many strategic thinkers suggest that energy, water and food
security will be the triggers for war and instability in the future.
Finding more effective ways of utilizing the vast amounts of energy
and water used in the industry, is therefore not simply a ‘‘nice-to-
have’’.
The thrust must therefore be to challenge the inherited wisdom
and investigate how we can ensure that energy is used in the most
efficient way possible. The task is not trivial, but the potential re-
wards are significant.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the input of Andrew Lo-
gan, EGM Newcrest Mining Ltd. and his permission to use data gen-
erated as part of an on-going innovation project. In addition, the
input of Claire Bearman and David Bowman of Bear Rock Solutions
Pty. Ltd. and Gan Samaradivakara, Newcrest Mining Pty. Ltd., is
also gratefully acknowledged.
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