15 Common Grammar Mistakes That Kill Your Writing Credibility

I love to write, but I’m not so crazy about grammar.

Learning about words that dangle, split, and get misplaced isn’t my idea of fun.
However, as an English major in college, I had it drilled into my head that poor grammar revealed laziness and a
lack of respect for the reader. It’s the literary form of bad manners and exposes the writer as someone who isn’t
serious about the craft.
If you’re an author, particularly a self-published author, you need to do everything possible to win your readers’
hearts and minds. When they are distracted by grammatical errors or confused by the meaning of a sentence,
they aren’t likely to buy your next book — or finish the one they are reading.
As tedious as grammar may be to those of us who just want to write, it is well-worth a few minutes of your time to refresh
the basics and make sure you don’t fall into one of the problematic grammar traps.
Here are 15 common grammar mistakes that can kill your credibility as a writer:
Table of Contents
 1. Subject-Verb Agreement Errors
 2. Sentence Fragments
 3. Missing Comma After Introductory Element
 4. Misusing The Apostrophe With “Its”
 5. No Comma In A Compound Sentence
 6. Misplaced Or Dangling Modifier
 7. Vague Pronoun Reference
 8. Wrong Word Usage
 9. Run-On Sentence
 10. Superfluous Commas
 11. Lack Of Parallel Structure
 12. Sentence Sprawl
 13. Comma Splice
 14. Colon Mistakes
 15. Split Infinitives
1. Subject-Verb Agreement Errors
The subject and verb of a sentence must agree with one another in number whether they are singular or plural. If
the subject of the sentence is singular, its verb must also be singular; and if the subject is plural, the verb must
also be plural.
Example 1:
Incorrect: An important part of my life have been the people who stood by me.
Correct: An important part of my life has been the people who stood by me.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The two best things about the party was the food and the music.
Correct: The two best things about the party were the food and the music.

2. Sentence Fragments

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Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that don’t have one independent clause. A fragment may lack a subject, a
complete verb, or both. Sometimes fragments depend on the proceeding sentence to give it meaning.
Example 1:
Incorrect: He gave his mother an extravagant gift after the argument. In spite of everything.
Correct: In spite of everything, he gave his mother an extravagant gift after the argument.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The boys snuck home late that night. Then waited for the consequences.
Correct: The boys snuck home late that night, then waited for the consequences.
3. Missing Comma After Introductory Element
A comma should be used after an introductory word, phrase, or clause. This gives the reader a slight pause after
an introductory element and often can help avoid confusion.
Example 1:
Incorrect: In case you haven’t noticed my real name doesn’t appear in the article.
Correct: In case you haven’t noticed, my real name doesn’t appear in the article.
Example 2:
Incorrect: Before she had time to think about it Sharon jumped into the icy pool.
Correct: Before she had time to think about it, Sharon jumped into the icy pool.
4. Misusing The Apostrophe With “Its”
You use an apostrophe with it’s only when the word means it is or it has. Without the apostrophe, its
means belonging to it.
Example 1:
Incorrect: I don’t believe its finally Friday.
Correct: I don’t believe it’s (it is) finally Friday.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The cat was licking it’s tail.
Correct: The cat was licking its tail.

5. No Comma In A Compound Sentence

A comma separates two or more independent clauses in a compound sentence separated by a conjunction. The
comma goes after the first clause and before the coordinating conjunction that separates the clauses.
Related: Test Your Proofreading Skills
Example 1:
Incorrect: The man jumped into a black sedan and he drove away before being noticed.
Correct: The man jumped into a black sedan, and he drove away before being noticed.
Example 2:
Incorrect: She was beautiful and she was happy and she was full of life.
Correct: She was beautiful, and she was happy, and she was full of life.
6. Misplaced Or Dangling Modifier
A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies or
describes. Sentences with this error can sound awkward, ridiculous, or confusing. A dangling modifier is a word or
phrase that modifies a word not clearly stated in the sentence.
Example 1:
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Incorrect: While walking on the sidewalk, Mary found a sparkly girl’s bracelet.
Correct: While walking on the sidewalk, Mary found a girl’s sparkly bracelet.
Example 2:
Incorrect: After finally setting off on the trail, the morning felt more exciting.
Correct: After finally setting off on the trail, he felt the morning was more exciting.
7. Vague Pronoun Reference
A pronoun can replace a noun, and its antecedent should be the person, place, or thing to which the pronoun
refers. A vague pronoun reference (including words such as it, that, this, and which) can leave the reader
confused about what or to whom the pronoun refers.
Example 1:
Incorrect: When Jonathan finally found his dog, he was so happy. (The dog or Jonathan?)
Correct: Jonathan was so happy when he finally found his dog.

Example 2:
Incorrect: Don felt a lot of anger and bitterness as a result of Marie’s decision. This is what ended everything.
(What ended everything? Don’s anger and bitterness or Marie’s decision?)
Correct: Don felt a lot of anger and bitterness as a result of Marie’s decision. Her choice ended everything.
8. Wrong Word Usage
There are a variety of words and phrases that are commonly confused and misused in sentences. Using them
incorrectly can change the meaning of the sentence or simply reflect carelessness on the writer’s part. There are
hundreds of these commonly confused words, so when in doubt, always check the definition and correct spelling
of the word.
Related: The Oxford Comma
Example 1:
Incorrect: She excepted his offer to drive her home.
Correct: She accepted his offer to drive her home.
Example 2:
Incorrect: It was a breathe of fresh air to meet someone so genuine.
Correct: It was a breath of fresh air to meet someone so genuine.
9. Run-On Sentence
A run-on sentence occurs when you connect two main clauses with no punctuation.
Example 1:
Incorrect: She tried to sneak out of the house her mother saw her leaving.
Correct: She tried to sneak out of the house, but her mother saw her leaving.
Example 2:
Incorrect: He ran through the field as fast as he could all the while rain was soaking him to the bone.
Correct: He ran through the field as fast as he could. All the while rain was soaking him to the bone.
10. Superfluous Commas
It’s common writing mistake to throw commas around liberally when they aren’t necessary. There are dozens of
examples of this error, but here are a few common mistakes.
Related: Should You Italicize Book Titles
Example 1:
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Incorrect: The woman never went into the city, because she didn’t feel comfortable driving in traffic.
Correct: The woman never went into the city because she didn’t feel comfortable driving in traffic.
Example 2:
Incorrect: He wants to get a degree in engineering, or medicine.
Correct: He wants to get a degree in engineering or medicine.
Example 3:
Incorrect: Sam knew immediately, what was going to happen next.
Correct: Same knew immediately what was going to happen next.
Example 4:
Incorrect: Old cars, that have been left in a junkyard, are an eyesore.
Correct: Old cars that have been left in a junkyard are an eyesore.
Example 5:
Incorrect: The bouquet of flowers on the table, belongs to Mary.
Correct: The bouquet of flowers on the table belongs to Mary.
11. Lack Of Parallel Structure
Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more parts of a sentence are similar in meaning but not parallel (or
grammatically similar) in form. It often occurs with paired constructions and items in a series.
Example 1:
Incorrect: He wanted to learn more about careers in programming, engineering, biochemist, and research
scientist.
Correct: He wanted to learn more about careers in programming, engineering, biochemistry, and research
science.
Example 2:
Incorrect: The key directives of his boss were clear:
 Meet monthly sales quotas.
 Aggressive marketing techniques.
 Reporting in every day.
Correct: The key directives of his boss were clear:
 Meet monthly sales goals.
 Practice aggressive marketing techniques.
 Report in every day.
12. Sentence Sprawl
A sentence can become a burden to read when there are too many equally weighted phrases.
Example 1:
Incorrect: Jason was planning to attend his friend’s wedding on June 30, but at the last minute he found out he
had jury duty, so he couldn’t attend the wedding, and he felt really guilty about it.
Correct: Unexpectedly Jason was called for jury duty and couldn’t attend his friend’s June 30 wedding. He felt
guilty about missing it.
13. Comma Splice
A comma splice occurs when two separate sentences are joined with a comma rather than a period or semicolon.
Writers often create comma splices when using transitional words, such as however, therefore, moreover,
nevertheless, or furthermore.
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Example 1:
Incorrect: My intention was to take her out to dinner, however I decided not to invite her after all.
Correct: My intention was to take her out to dinner; however, I decided not to invite her after all.
Example 2:
Incorrect: My sisters and I love to go shopping, we then have lunch together when we’re done.
Correct: My sisters and I love to go shopping. We then have lunch together when we’re done.
14. Colon Mistakes
A colon is used after a complete sentence to introduce a word, phrase, clause, list, or quotation. The colon
signals that what follows proves or explains the sentence preceding the colon.
Example 1:
Incorrect: People move to Florida for: the warmer weather, the beach, and the theme parks.
Correct: People move to Florida for three reasons: the warmer weather, the beach, and the theme parks.
15. Split Infinitives
An infinitive is the word “to” with a verb. A split infinitive separates the word “to” and the verb with another word
(often an adverb). There are no grammar rules that prohibit split infinitives, but many experts disapprove of them.
If the sentence sounds awkward by correcting the split, our rule of thumb is to go with what makes the most
sense in the context of your writing and for the ease of reading. (For example, “To boldly go where no man has
gone before” would sound awkward and less powerful as, “To go boldly where no man has gone before.”)
Example 1:
Incorrect: She tried to quickly finish the book before she had to leave.
Correct: She tried to finish the book quickly before she had to leave.
Example 2:
Incorrect: He wanted to gradually improve his strength by increasing the weight.
Correct: He wanted to improve his strength gradually by increasing the weight.
As a serious author, you want to put your best foot forward with your writing. There are times and reasons to
break some of the rules of grammar, but it’s wiser to break them knowing what they are and why you should
stray.
Whenever you’re in doubt about a rule, take a brief moment to look it up. You’ll save yourself some
embarrassment, and you’ll show your readers that you respect language and revere the art of writing well.

One of the most common errors identified in writing is the misuse of commas in complex sentences.
Here are a few simple pieces of information to help you understand the basic rules of usage.
What is a complex sentence?
Complex sentences contain at least one main independent clause and one or more subordinate
dependent clauses.
The main clause contains a subject and a verb and can stand on its own as a simple sentence.
A subordinate clause contains a subject and a verb, but cannot stand on its own because it begins with
a subordinating conjunction.
What is a subordinating conjunction?
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A subordinating conjunction is a bridge between dependent clauses and independent clauses. A few
examples include:
 after
 if
 although
 because
 though
 since
 so that
 while
 wherever
 that
 once
Rather than learn an extensive conjunctions list, it's easier to understand the coordinating conjunctions.
You need to know when to use them and treat most others as subordinating conjunctions.
How do you connect the two clauses?
It's quite simple once you understand what a complex sentence is and you can identify most
subordinating conjunctions.
If the sentence begins with an independent clause and is followed by a dependent clause, do not use a
comma.
Example 1: Learning to write is challenging although knowing the rules makes it easier.
Example 2: I enjoy reading, writing, and speaking because it provides me tools to communicate.
If the sentence begins with a dependent clause and is followed by an independent clause, use a
comma.
Example 1: Although knowing the rules makes it easier, learning to write is challenging.
Example 2: Because it provides me tools to communicate, I enjoy reading, writing, and speaking.
Follow this rule in your writing so that you can be one of those writers that helps your readers - or even
the comma police - relax with their morning coffee.
https://latrobe.libguides.com/language/common-mistakes
Mistake 1: Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. There are two main reasons for sentence fragments:
 the sentence is incomplete in meaning (a dependent clause)
 the sentence is missing a subject or a verb.
You will also learn how to test for a sentence fragment.
a) The sentence is incomplete in meaning (a dependent clause)
One common fragment error occurs when a writer thinks that a dependent part of a sentence
(dependent clause) is a complete sentence. The dependent clause may contain a subject and a verb

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but the meaning is incomplete. Often the connecting word that begins the sentence fragment can only
be used to join a dependent clause to an independent clause to make a complete sentence.
Connecting words such as those below are called subordinators because they introduce only the
dependent part of the sentence not the whole sentence.
because since although if
whereas while unless when

Example of a sentence fragment (a dependent clause only):

because the ruling party refused to hand over power
The given example is a sentence fragment since we have the reason for something (introduced by
‘because’), but we do not have the “something”.
To correct the sentence fragment we need another clause - the independent clause - to which the
dependent clause will be attached. Then the sentence will be complete in meaning.
The election failed because the ruling party refused to hand over power.
or
Because the ruling party refused to hand over power, the election failed
Note: The independent clause can come at the beginning or the end. If it is at the end, a comma is
needed.
b) The sentence fragments is missing a subject or a verb
Another common fragment error occurs when the writer has failed to include a subject or a verb or
both.

Example 1: A sentence fragment with no subject or verb

In polling stations with adequate security.
In this example, we do not know who or what is doing the action (the subject of the sentence), nor do
we know what the action or process is (the verb).
 The fragment only tells us the “where” part of the sentence.
 We need another part with subject (who or what) and verb (action/process) to make a
complete sentence, for example:
✔ In polling stations with adequate security, voter turnout was high.

Example 2: A sentence fragment with no subject or verb

Seeing police and security forces inside polling stations.
Example 2 does not contain a subject or a verb.
 The word “seeing” at the beginning of the sentence looks like a verb, but it is only a
participle (part of a verb).
 To function as a verb the “ –ing” word (participle) needs an auxiliary such as am, was,
is, or were.

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  To fix the fragment in the above example, an independent clause with a subject
and verb needs to be added to complete the meaning of the sentence.
✔ Seeing police and security forces inside polling stations, many voters felt intimidated
c) How to test for a sentence fragment
One way of testing whether or not a sentence is complete or a fragment is to put the words “It is true
that” at the beginning of the sentence:
It is true that because the ruling party refused to hand over power.
When this test is applied, it is often easier to see that something is needed to complete the sentence
(and the meaning).
The tables below indicate how dependent clauses are attached to independent clauses to form
complete sentences. In the first table, the independent clause is in the initial – first – position; in the
second table the dependent clause is in the initial position. Note the use of the comma if the dependent
clause is placed before the independent one.
Subordinate
Independent clause Dependent clause
connector
Because/
The election failed because the ruling party clung to power.
since

Although/
The prime minister denies despite corruption allegations that have
Whereas/
wrong doing left him fighting for his political life.
despite

Unless Democracy will not prevail unless free elections can be guaranteed.

Subordinate
Dependent clause Independent clause
connector
Because/ Because the ruling party clung to
the election failed.
since power,
Although/
Despite corruption allegations that have the prime minister denies
Whereas/
left him fighting for his political life, wrong doing.
while
Unless Unless free elections can be guaranteed, democracy will not prevail.

Activity 1.1 Identify sentence fragments

Identify any sentence fragments in the following excerpts:
Highlight a sentence fragment then click next.
1. Of more concern from the Indigenous perspective are the opportunity costs of student attrition to the
Indigenous community when Indigenous engagement with higher education, seen as a key to improve
Indigenous well-being and futures, does not achieve desired outcomes. Despite the tremendous efforts in

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the Indigenous higher education sector to close the gap between the retention, completion and
graduation rates. (adapted from Nakata, Nakata & Chin, 2008)
Correct answer:
Despite the tremendous efforts in the Indigenous higher education sector to close the gap between the retention,
completion and graduation rates. (adapted from Nakata, Nakata & Chin, 2008)

Activity 1.2. Repair sentence fragments

Repair the sentence fragments by linking them to a main part or by completing them
Make changes to the sentence to fix the fragment issue.

The majority believes that the proposed amendment should be passed. Because the current city
policy on housing is incomplete.
The majority believes that the proposed amendment should be passed because the current city policy on housing
is incomplete.
OR
Because the current city policy on housing is incomplete, the majority believes that the proposed amendment
should be passed.
The cross-campus tournament will take place next week. Unless it rains.
The cross-campus tournament will take place next week unless it rains.
OR
Unless it rains, the cross-campus tournament will take place next week.
Although he had better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.
Although he had better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker, he did not convince the jury.
OR
He did not convince the jury although he had better arguments and was by far the more powerful speaker.

Activity 1.3. Correct these more challenging fragments

Repair the sentence fragments by linking them to a main part or by completing them
Make changes to the sentence to fix the fragment issue.
In class today we discussed Byron’s poem Don Juan. Also Byron’s own life.
In class today we discussed Byron’s poem Don Juan as well as Byron’s own life.
Working in Professor Bootle’s laboratory. It was a good training for students.
Working in Professor Bootle’s laboratory was a good training for students.
OR
It was a good training for students to work in Professor Bootle’s laboratory.
During the Second World War. Millions of Jews lost their lives.
During the Second World War millions of Jews lost their lives.
OR
Millions of Jews lost their lives during the Second World War.

Mistake 2: Apostrophes
In this section we talk about how apostrophes should be used in your writing.

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a) Contractions: when an apostrophe replaces one or two omitted letters
When we put two short words together, we use an apostrophe to show that one or two letters are
omitted, e.g.,
do not ► don't
is not ► isn't
it is ► it's
It is not common to use these shortened forms in academic writing. These shortened forms are used
primarily in speech and informal writing.
Acronyms do not need apostrophes eg:
INCORRECT CORRECT
USB’s USBs
1960’s 1960s
90’s 90s

b) Possession – ‘owning’ something

In your writing you will often use apostrophes with reporting verbs, there may be one author:
Sanderson’s (1988) seminal work on protozoa…
Or there maybe two authors:
Chapman and Grieg’s (2005) research results are quite contrary to those of Graham (1999)
In this example, two authors own one research activity. Note the use of “those of
Graham" instead of "Graham’s’" which would look strange as just "Graham’s’" with no noun, but
would add redundant information if there were repetition, e.g., "Graham’s results"
Or there maybe be two separate papers.
Chapman’s (2004) and Grieg’s (2006) studies both support the work of Graham (1999)

Words ending with "s":

If the name or word ends in ‘s’ , then generally just a simple apostrophe is used:
When studying Ancient Greek I learnt about Socrates’ philosophy.

c) When to use ITS and IT’S

Unlike other possessive nouns, “it’s” IS NOT a possessive form. It is a CONTRACTION of ‘it is’.
Contractions (can’t, couldn’t, wouldn’t) are generally NOT used in formal writing, so this means you
don’t use “it’s” but “it is” instead.
“Its” is a POSSESSIVE form. But you might say, Why hasn’t it got an apostrophe like “the university’s
courses” or “the student’s book”? In fact “its” is just like every other possessive pronoun (your, her, his,
their) and they don’t have apostrophes either!
For your biology project you can use the photo of this cat. Its fur gives indications as to which
species it belongs to.

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Activity 2. Apostrophes
Tick the correct form (it's or its or 'it is') for the following sentences:

its it's it is

1. The lecturer said that it's best to This is reported informal speech so "it's"
start research on our assignment instead of "it is" can be used.
this week.

2. Scholars reading our paper were This is a possessive so needs "its".

concerned about its contribution to
the field.

3. Under the in vitro conditions, it is This is formal academic writing so "it is"
clear that antibiotic has a profound must be used.
effect.

4. I think it's fine to use the internet to Conversational speech, so the contracted
get basic information about theories. form "it's" can be used.

5. The participants tested the This is a possessive so needs "its".

questionnaire and considered its
content to be culturally appropriate
for the sample population.

6. Our classes are in the evening and go Conversational speech, so the contracted
until 9pm, it's far too late for me. form "it's" can be used.

7. The journal editorial team has Formal academic writing so "it is" is
decided that it is inappropriate to appropriate.
use personal reference.

8. Academic writing is quite This is a possessive so needs "its".

conservative in its adherence to
grammatical rules.

9. It is not acceptable to use Formal academic writing so "it is" is

contractions in formal academic appropriate.
writing.

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 10. Conversational English however is This is a possessive so needs "its".
much less rigid with regard to its use
of correct grammar.

Mistake 3: Comma splice

A comma splice is an error that often happens when writers try to avoid writing short sentences. The
word 'splice' refers to the joining of two separate parts.
A comma splice occurs when one sentence is two complete sentences joined together by a comma.
This is an error because the function of a comma is not to link two complete sentences.
There are a number of ways to avoid the comma splice error.

a) The easiest way to correct a comma splice is to replace the comma with a full-stop.
NO: Protesters intimidated voters, the election failed.
YES: Protesters intimidated voters. The election failed.
In this way we have two separate sentences that are complete in meaning.
Testing for comma splice errors in your writing:
When you replace the comma by a full-stop, you will be getting separate simple sentences, and the
meaning of each sentence will be complete.
A full-stop is a suitable solution when we have 2 long sentences separated by a comma splice
as below.
NO: Protesters intimidated voters, therefore the election failed despite the efforts of observers to
ensure a free and fair polling process.
YES: Protesters intimidated voters. Therefore, the election failed despite the efforts of observers to
ensure a free and fair polling process.

b) An alternative to the full-stop is the semi-colon (;)

A semi-colon is weaker than the full-stop. The semi-colon is often used when the ideas in 2 sentences
that follow each other are closely related.
NO: Travelling to that country is easy,getting a visa is a different matter.
YES: Travelling to that country is easy; getting a visa is a different matter.

c) Two sentences separated by a comma splice can also be corrected by adding a coordinating
conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions are words used to link two separate sentences
The following are coordinating conjunctions:
For; And; Nor; But; Or; Yet; So
One easy way to remember all the conjunctions is to use the acronym ‘FANBOYS’:

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 F or
A nd
N or
B ut
Or
Y et
So

NO: Travelling to that country is easy, getting a visa is a different matter.

YES: Travelling to that country is easy, but getting a visa is a different matter.
Activity 3. Comma splices
Choose an alternative to the full-stop to correct the following comma splices:
Some people believe that the Government should play a bigger role in establishing a housing policy for
the homeless, many others disagree.
Some people believe that the Government should play a bigger role in establishing a housing policy for the
homeless; many others disagree.
OR
Some people believe that the Government should play a bigger role in establishing a housing policy for the
homeless, but many others disagree.
The chairperson described the major differences on the issue, he also suggested a possible course of
action.
The chairperson described the major differences on the issue, and he also suggested a possible course of action.
OR
The chairperson described the major differences on the issue; he also suggested a possible course of action.
According to the Senator's chief of staff, the biggest challenge remained, the constituents had to be
convinced of the benefits of the plan.
According to the Senator's chief of staff, the biggest challenge remained: the constituents had to be convinced of
the benefits of the plan.

Mistake 4: Run-on sentences

Run-on sentence errors are less frequent than comma splice errors. A run-on sentence occurs when
two complete sentences are fused together.
The situation is similar to comma splice errors, except that there is no comma placed between the two
sentences. We correct run-on sentences in the same manner as we do for comma splice errors: by
using a full stop, a semi-colon or a coordinating conjunction.
Example:
NO: The patient was poorly treated he died of shock.
YES: The patient was poorly treated; he died of shock.

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Activity 4. Run-on sentences
Rewrite the following with the appropriate punctuation or coordinating conjunction

Nurses can build their professional career in two different ways they may choose to become clinical
specialists or consultant nurses.
Nurses can build their professional career in two different ways: they may choose to become clinical specialists or
consultant nurses.

Mistake 5: Parallel structure

Parallel structure is the repetition of similar form for equal ideas within a sentence. This is a way to
make the sentence look grammatically balanced. Problems with maintaining parallel structure often
occur when constructing lists. To be balanced the list must repeat the same grammatical form.
a) Compare the following pairs. You will see that the first examples have unbalanced parallel structures
compared to the second ones where the parallel structure has been re-established.
NO: Australians like sun, the sand, and the sea.
YES: Australians like the sun, the sand, and the sea.

NO: The security officer stopped, listened for a moment, then he locked the door of the classroom.
YES: The security officer stopped, listened for a moment, then locked the door of the classroom.

b) Problems with parallel structures can also occur when constructing lists as dot points.
Compare the unbalanced structure caused by different grammatical forms in the first example with the
balanced parallel structure in the second example.
The objectives of this analysis are:
 Identifying the main categories of cultural difference;
 To give an account of the dangers of stereotyping;
 The different ways to conceptualise difference.
The objectives of this analysis are to:
 Identify the main categories of cultural difference;
 Give an account of the dangers of stereotyping;
 Describe the different ways to conceptualise the difference.
or
The objectives of this analysis are:
 Identifying the main categories of cultural difference;
 Giving an account of the dangers of stereotyping;
 Describing the different ways to conceptualise the difference
Activity 5. Parallel structure
Re-establish the parallel structure in the following sentences.

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The mayor promises not only to reform the police department, but also the giving of salary increments
to all city employees.
The mayor promises not only to reform the police department, but also to give salary increments to all city
employees.

The cost of not doing anything is greater than the cost to renovate the town-hall.
The cost of not doing anything is greater than the cost of renovating the town-hall.

The items on the agenda are: to discuss the new property tax; to finalise the city charter; and a vote on
the city manager's request for an assistant.
The items on the agenda are: to discuss the new property tax; to finalise the city charter; and to vote on the city
manager's request for an assistant.

Mistake 6: Misplaced modifiers

Modifiers are descriptions. They need to be placed near the word or subject they describe for clarity in
the sentence.
Problems can arise when what we call Verbals, that is, -ing and -ed (e.g., words like ‘running’,
‘standing’ and ‘frightened’) act as modifiers or descriptions, and it is not clear in the sentence who or
what the description is related to.
To correct such errors, we have to look at the logical sequence of the sentence again, and rework it so
as to place the modifier next to the word that is being described.
Example:
NO: The onlooker will first see the palace of Versailles walking down the alley.
YES: Walking down the alley, the onlooker will first see the palace of Versailles.

NO: The prisoners kept walking for hours under the orders of the enemy frightened.
YES: Frightened, the prisoners kept walking for hours under the orders of the enemy.

At times, other small alterations make the sentence sound better.

NO: You will see the insect looking in the microscope.
YES: If you look in the microscope, you will see the insect.
Activity 6. Misplaced modifiers
Correct the following sentences with misplaced modifiers

Stunned, the television network broadcast the senator's concession speech.

The television network broadcast the stunned senator's concession speech.

Flying low over Washington, the White House was seen by the group.
Flying low over Washington, the group saw the White House.

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Worried about the cost of the program, some secondary items were removed by the committee.
Worried about the cost of the program, the committee removed some secondary items.

Mistake 7: Poor cohesion

Cohesion is about how our texts “stick together”. A text that is loosely cohesive is vague and
unfocussed. There are three main ways to make your text cohesive:
a. Using the same words or a synonym;
b. Using a conjunction (and, but, because, therefore, etc);
c. Using pronouns (he, she, they) or demonstrative articles (this/these, that/ those).

a) Using the same words or a synonym

The most obvious type of cohesion is using the same words:
The oldest known form of writing dates from 5000 years ago. This writing is called Cuneiform,
from the Latin word cuneus 'a wedge' which was used to press the characters into soft clay.
Alternatively words with similar meanings might be used to link sentences:
The first books to be produced were mainly religious texts written in Latin. This meant that only
Latin scholars access to literature.

A common mistake in student writing is to think that all words need synonyms.
But key words in your essay are best left identical.
The reader wants to know when you are writing about the key ideas so if you change the name of key
concepts, the reader no longer recognises them.

b) Using a conjunction
Another way in which texts are linked together is with conjunctions or joining words. Conjunctions
are very powerful and do more than just link text together. Different conjunctions demonstrate different
relationships between sentences, so students need to take care that the correct relationship is being
expressed.
In the early days of universities, students would hire texts from booksellers and copy them out
themselves. But by the end in the mid 15th century the printing press was invented.
Note that some conjunctions do not have to come at the beginning of a sentence:
The QWERTY keyboard was designed to slow typists down. This also stopped the keys from
jamming on early typewriters.

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c) Using personal pronouns or demonstrative pronouns
The role of a personal pronoun is to replace a noun (‘pro’ is the Latin word for ‘in the place of’) rather
than repeat it:
The Vice-Chancellor gave several reasons for his decision.
Several students have withdrawn their support for the protest.
That girl is a postgraduate student. She is writing a thesis on hydrodynamics.

There are constraints on how far a pronoun can be from its reference (its full noun). If too much
information is between the full noun and its pronoun, the reader loses track of the link. Pronouns must
also agree in number and gender with their full nouns.
Demonstrative pronouns are used in the same way as personal pronouns. They must agree in
number.
Several findings are presented here: those relating to the impact of alcohol and cigarettes,
and thoserelating to anxiety and depression.
The lecture given by Dr Anderson was good, but that by Professor Collins was fantastic.

Pronouns can add variety to our writing. However, it becomes a problem when we use them too much,
or when it is difficult to tell what or whom the pronoun is referring back to.
Look what happens when too many pronouns are used!
The majority of people in the town opposed to the new parking restrictions when they were first
introduced by the town council. However, a follow-up survey shows that, when they had
experienced their operation, the majority was in favour of them.
But if we don’t use them our writing is boring and repetitive. Look what happens when pronouns are not
used!
Pelicans are large aquatic birds. Pelicans can be recognised by having large expandable
beaks. Pelicansare to be found on open water either on the coast or on inland lakes.
Activity 7.1 Pronouns can be ambiguous
Pronouns can also be ambiguous!
The bosses told the workers that they were getting a pay rise.
What is wrong with this sentence?
Answer - Who is getting the pay rise - the bosses or the workers? There are two possible antecedents (nouns to
refer back to) and they are both plural and require a 'they' pronoun. Such a sentence needs to be rewritten:
The bosses said that the workers would get a pay rise.
The bosses told the workers that they were giving themselves a pay rise.
Activity 7.2. Use of pronouns
Choose the correct pronouns to insert into these sentences:
1. At the beginning of both I his they her career, Albert Einstein had already lost confidence in Newtonian
mechanics.
2. These are books by Professor Robertson. Both I His They Her are all about both I his they her research.

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3. My tutor asked me to use more pronouns but to make sure that both I his they her checked that the nouns
and the pronouns agreed in gender and number.
4. American keyboards are different from British ones and both I his they her are different from European ones.

Mistake 8: Existential sentences

These are sentences where the subject doesn’t really exist. “It” and “there” take the place of the subject
– they are like “dummy subjects”:
It is currently thought that students benefit from the inclusion of ICT in their tutorial activities.
There is considerable research that suggests that students benefit from access to ICT.
Although you might think that these forms establish the level of objectivity expected in formal academic
writing, a common error is to use them as generalisations for a number of unreferenced sources. Make
sure that such generalisations are followed by referenced sources:
It is currently thought that students benefit from the inclusion of ICT in their tutorial activities
(see further Curry & Thompson 2013).
There is considerable research that suggests that students benefit from access to ICT (for
example Martins 2004; Keaton 2009; and Davies 2012).
Activity 8. Dummy subjects
Identify the "dummy subjects" in the following passage.
Click on each word to highlight your choice. Click next to compare your answers.
It is generally acknowledged that the literacy and communicative needs of future workplace environments and stu
dents' current capacity to achieve these do not match. Hence a needs analysis of the future working environment
should be conducted to enhance instruction. There are several approaches to designing a needs analysis for a pa
rticular workplace. Firstly it has been found from in-
depth interviews with students to gather their perceptions of the vocational environment, and the realities as seen
by prospective employers, that views are rarely similar. Secondly, there is research showing that many graduates
are ill-prepared for the future employment in the engineering sector in particular.
It is generally acknowledged that the literacy and communicative needs of future workplace environments and
students' current capacity to achieve these do not match. Hence a needs analysis of the future working
environment should be conducted to enhance instruction. There are several approaches to designing a needs
analysis for a particular workplace. Firstly it has been found from in-depth interviews with students to gather their
perceptions of the vocational environment, and the realities as seen by prospective employers, that views are
rarely similar. Secondly, there is research showing that many graduates are ill-prepared for the future employment
in the engineering sector in particular.

What else is wrong with this passage of text?

It is generally acknowledged that the literacy and communicative needs of future workplace environments and stu
dents' current capacity to achieve these do not match. Hence a needs analysis of the future working environment
should be conducted to enhance instruction. There are several approaches to designing a needs analysis for a pa
rticular workplace. Firstly it has been found from in-
depth interviews with students to gather their perceptions of the vocational environment, and the realities as seen
by prospective employers, that views are rarely similar. Secondly, there is research showing that many graduates
are ill-prepared for the future employment in the engineering sector in particular.

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ANSWER: There are no references to the research generalised in the use of 'it' and 'there'.

Mistake 10: Clauses

Subordinate clauses are a useful way to integrate more information into your writing, however it is
important to know how they should be used. There are two types which you will learn about here:
a. Relative clauses
b. Complement clauses

a) Relative clauses
There are two types of relative clauses and the difference between them is important. They are:
 Defining relative clauses (sometimes called ‘restrictive clauses) and
 Non-defining relative clauses (sometimes called non-restrictive clauses)
Defining relative clauses tell us which particular noun we are talking about
I like the lectures which our professor gives about genetics. (i.e., those lectures and no
others)
Non-defining relative clauses give us a bit of extra information. Notice that we don’t really need this
information because without it we still have a grammatical sentence.
Our campus, which is surrounded by woodlands, has a great atmosphere.
Our campus has a great atmosphere.

Notice also that the non-defining relative clause is separated with commas but the defining one is
not. This is important – just because you have used a word like “which”, it doesn’t mean you
need a comma!

Relative pronouns
Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns – who, whom, whose, which and nowadays that.

i) Who is used when the noun defined is the subject of the relative clause and a human:
I saw the man who runs the bookshop (i.e, the man [subject] runs the bookshop)
The woman who wore large earrings was the head of the department (the woman [subject]
wore large earrings)

ii) Whom is used when the noun defined is the object of the relative clause and a human:
The student whom we contacted was living on the streets.
Note that whom is optional but who (above is not):>
The student (whom) we contacted was living on the streets.
(Whom is often replaced by who these days, but why not make you writing stylish and use the
correct form – whom?)

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iii) When the noun defined is an indirect object in the relative clause, ‘to’ is required:
The student to whom they gave money was living on the streets.
but nowadays this is more often:
The boy (who) Gail gave money to was living on the streets.
(But why not make you writing stylish and use the correct form – to whom!)

iv) If the noun is not a person then the relative pronoun is ‘which’:
The books which are in the reserve collection are getting very tatty.
The book which she stole was mine.

Which is used regardless of whether it is a subject or object of the relative clause. However if the
defined noun is the object of the relative clause then the relative pronoun is optional:
The book (which) she stole was mine.
This is not the case if the defined noun is the subject:
* The books are in the reserve collection are getting very tatty.
Note however that ‘that’ is often used instead of ‘which’ now:
The books that are in the reserve collection are getting very tatty.
The book she stole was mine.
The book (that) she stole was mine.

v) When a relative clause indicates possession then the relative pronoun is ‘whose’:
The person whose keys were stolen should go to the Lost Property office

vi) Where, when and why are also used as relative pronouns:
Show me the shop where you bought it.
It was raining on the day (when) the Wallabies played the Springboks.
The reason (why) they argued was money.
'Why'and ‘when’ are optional but not ‘where’:
*Show me the shop you bought it.
Show me the shop where you bought it.

b) Complement ‘that’ clauses

These types of clauses are very common in academic writing, especially when using reporting verbs
(see Achieve Using Sources). Whereas a relative clause provides more information about a noun, a
complement clause provides more information about a verb. In formal writing these clauses are
introduce by “that” (called the complementiser):
Several scholars claim that our study has not used valid data.
Several scholars claim (verb) that (complementiser) our study has not used valid data.

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 Anderson et al (2012) have suggested that the rock fragments are inadequate for analysis.
Anderson et al (2012) have suggested (verb) that (complementiser) the rock fragments are unsuitable for
analysis.

Very often, and especially in journalism where space is highly relevant, the “that” is left out:
Several scholars claim (that) our study has not used valid data.
This is even happening in academic journal articles now! But including “that” will make your
writing clear and precise.

In academic writing, a complete sentence must have at least one subject and one verb (sometimes referred to as
a subject and a predicate or a noun phrase and a verb phrase).
The subject can take many forms as can be seen in the table below where subjects are in (red) and verbs
in *blue* (The examples are adapted from Jane Austen’s novels Persuasion and Pride & Prejudice).

(Vanity) *was* the beginning and end of Sir Walter’s character.

(He) *was* a very selfish man.

(His constant preening) *had been* annoying.

(Looking at his reflection in the mirror) *was* all that he seemed to do.

Looking at his reflection in the mirror, (he) *adjusted* his clothes again.

(That he had accumulated a large debt) *was known* to everyone.

(Everything his daughter proposed) *was* rejected.

(It) *is* a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune
must be in want of a wife.

Subjects and verbs

Subjects and their verbs have a close relationship, but if something comes in front of a subject, then it needs to
be separated with a comma:
Seeing that it was Thursday, Emma was eager to see her friend Miss Smith.
Since meeting the captain, she felt she had a friend for life.
There will be a comma between the subject and the verb if additional (non-essential) information describes the
verb:
Emma, who was young, rich and pretty, was unaware she had insulted her friend.
However when the information is necessary to identify the subject, then no comma is needed:
Soldiers who were stationed in the village were known to the family. [This sentence is about
those soldiers who were stationed in the village, not all soldiers]

Read more about these types of sentences in 10 Common Mistakes in Student Writing.
Subjects and verbs activity

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Below are a jumble of subjects and verbs and phrases without any punctuation. Put them together to make six
complete sentences and see how the sentences are punctuated.
Select any two phrases in the right order to automatically create a sentence.
NOTE: Subject is red. Verb is blue.
1. Reading journal articles enables students to learn how academic texts are constructed.
2. Excavating a hidden cave in Queensland, anthropologists found thousands of artefacts.
3. The poor state of the county's health care system reflects the current economic circumstances.
4. Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich, with a comfortable home and happy
disposition seemed to unitesome of the best blessings of existence.
5. Vanity working on a weak head produces every sort of mischief.
6. That the rich live longer than the poor requires little explanation.
7. To follow is easier than to lead.
You have answered all the questions correctly.
In any sentence, the subject must agree with the verb. To find out what this means, take a look at the some of the
rules and examples that govern subject verb agreement below, then complete the exercises that follow.
Rule 1: Subjects and verbs must agree in number:
The sea eagle swoops to catch its prey. Sea eagles swoop to catch their prey.
Rule 2: Subjects and verbs must agree in person (I, you, he/she/it, we, they)
I am unable to understand the lecture. He is unable to understand the lecture.
Rule 3: Only the subject (colours) not the prepositional phrase (of a rainbow) affects the verb.
The colours of a rainbow are caused by reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water.
Rule 4: Phrases such as together with, as well as and along with may mean the same as and but they do not
work the same way grammatically. While they modify the subject they do not make it plural if the subject is
singular.
High blood pressure, together with obesity, is a key risk factor for many chronic diseases.
Rule 5: If the subject is uncountable or a unit of measurement or time it takes the singular.
Happiness is elusive. Water is essential to life on this planet.
Twenty kilometres per litre is the average fuel consumption for a hybrid car.
Rule 6: The verb in a sentence which contains – or, nor, neither … nor, either … or, not only … but also – agrees
with the part of the subject closest to it (kingfishers, eagle and kingfishers in the sentences below).
Not only kookaburras but also other kingfishers are carnivorous.
Not only the kookaburra but also the eagle is carnivorous.
Not only the kookaburra but also other kingfishers are carnivorous.
Subject Verb Agreement Activity
Choose the correct form of the verb in each sentence
1. In Jane Austen's novel Persuasion, the navy represents a new class of men whose rise to social power is
based on merit rather than inheritance.
Your response is correct. Why? The subject in the sentence is the navy which is singular so takes the
verb represents. [see rule 1]

Tenses and verbs

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While the word tense refers to the time of an event (past, present or future), it is also combined with something
linguists call aspect and mood:
 Tense refers to the time of an event (past, present or future).
 Aspect indicates how this event is experienced – whether it has been completed, is ongoing or
occurring before another event (simple, continuous/progressive or perfect).
 Mood refers to the likelihood of the even happening (whether something is imagined/predicted or
real).
So each sentence is marked by a verb (or verb phrase) that indicates tense (and its
associated aspect and mood).
The English tense system is complex:
 Tense is not simply an indicator of the time frame in which something occurs;
 Tense can also be used to show, among other things, the currency, regularity or importance of
what is reported in the sentence and even the writer’s attitude to it.
Verb forms that indicate tense and aspect
The horizontal rows show aspect: whether an event is happening, has happened or was happening, and
continuing or is finished.
aspect
continuous/ perfect
simple perfect
progressive continuous/progressive
have + have + past participle
tense be + -ing
past participle + been +-ing
present think/thinks has thought am/is/are thinking has/have been thinking
past thought had thought was/were thinking had been thinking
future will think will have thought will be thinking will have been thinking

Much of the information on tenses and the activities are based on the work of Dr Julia Miller and the OLT project
team; the UNC Writing Center and Celce-Murcia, M., & Larsen-Freeman, D. (1999). The Grammar Book (2nd ed).
US: Heinle & Heinle.

PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

The present simple tense and when to use it

In academic writing, present simple, the past simple and present perfect account for nearly 80% of tense use. The
table below explains some of the ways in which the present simple is used.
Present Simple can be
Sentence Examples
used for:
1. General statements, There is evidence in the literature supporting the benefits of Nurse
conclusions or interpretations Practitioner (NP) roles in health care settings from both Australian and
about previous research international perspectives.
focusing on what is already The integration of methods described in previous papers seems to
known offer only ad hoc solutions.

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2. Aims
3. Results, discussion and
conclusion of research
focusing on what is known
now
4. A claim or someone’s
opinion focusing on the
present impact
5. A fact
6. Habitual actions in the
present
7. A general principle
8. A theory
PAST SIMPLE TENSE
The past simple tense and when to use it
In academic writing, present simple, the past simple and present perfect account for nearly 80% of tense use. The
table below explains some of the ways in which the past simple is used.
Past simple
can be used to:
1. Indicate remoteness in time.
2. Emphasise the completed
nature of a past activity – such Eg: A survey questionnaire was the method of data collection for
as the methods used in the
research.
3. Report past findings,
including even very current
research in some cases.
This review article examines the effects of biotic and abiotic conditions
on foraging behaviour and site selection in a classical sit-and-wait
predator, the pit-building antlion.
This investigation broadens the scope of what is understood to be
gesture by providing a detailed description of how aspects of the
‘material surround’ and the activities of ‘tracing and
inscription’ are incorporated into communicative actions.
There are three surprising features about these claims regarding the
use of questions by Aboriginal people.
Food provides the energy our bodies need to function.
Today, heart disease still claims the life of one Australian every 12
minutes.
Consumers sometimes act like creatures of habit, automatically
repeating past behaviour with little regard to current goals and valued
outcomes.
The impact of post modern theory is seen in cultural perceptions
regarding truth and morality.
Sentence Examples
Eg: In 1910, Sir Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer suggested that
people with diabetes were deficient in a single chemical that was
normally produced by the pancreas. He proposed calling this
substance insulin, from the Latin insul1.
1 Meaning “island” and referring to the cells of the pancreas which produce insulin and
which were named the islets of Langerhans when discovered by Paul Langerhans in
1869.
Phase 1, whilst Phase 2 consisted of semi-structured interviews.
Eg: The daily number of all amphetamine-related
ambulance attendances in 2012/13 increased significantly compared
with the previous year – 88% increase in metropolitan Melbourne and
a 198% in regional Victoria.
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PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

The present perfect tense and when to use it

In academic writing, present simple, the past simple and present perfect account for nearly 80% of tense use. The
table below explains some of the ways in which the past simple is used.

Present Perfect
Sentence Examples
can be used to:
reference previous research or These conclusions about questions have been enduring; they are still
your own previous findings that used today to describe Aboriginal children’s verbal behavior.
are still true or relevant now
2. Make a general statement Eg: Advances have been made in detecting and deterring student
about previous research (the plagiarism that have accompanied the uptake and development of the
present simple could also be Internet.
used but the focus here is Eg: Some studies have shown that girls have significantly higher fears
on what has been done rather than boys after trauma (Pfefferbaum et al., 1999; Pine & Cohen, 2002;
than on what is known to be Shaw, 2003). Other studies have found no gender differences (Rahav
true now (present simple) & Ronen, 1994).
Eg: Moreover, recent studies have illustrated that the foraging mode
3. Make a connection between of top predators can influence the strength of cascading effects in food
the past (previous research) webs (Schmitz & Suttle, 2001; Schmitz et al., 2004). Therefore,
and the present (your research) individual behaviour and specifically foraging should be thoroughly
studied.
4. Refer to a situation that
Eg: The nature of plagiarism has changed since the arrival of the
began at a prior point in time
digital age.
and continues into the present
5. Report on a very recently Eg: La Trobe archeologists have recently made a significant finding
completed action about the evolution of an indigenous population of Europe.
6. Present an information Eg: Another method that has also been combined into a hybrid
prominent citation in the system is case-based reasoning [6].
passive voice (has/have + been Eg: The significant increase in oestrogen production during pregnancy
+ past participle) [link to is not unique to humans but has been noted in other species including
passive] the cow, horse, pig, sheep and rhesus monkey (5).

Tenses used less often in academic writing

(from Dr Julia Miller and the OLT project team)

“Generally, academic writing is based on research or theories that already exist, have already happened, or refer
to a current event or view. This means that the various forms of the future are less likely to be used in essays,
although they might be used in reports.
- ‘going to' future: They are going to research this next year.

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 - future simple: They will conduct further research next year.
- future continuous: They will be conducting the survey over the next six months.
- future perfect: By the end of August they will have had over 150 rehearsals.

The continuous/progressive forms are less common in academic writing because they indicate something
temporary.
- present continuous/progressive: They are researching this now.
- present perfect continuous/progressive: They have been researching this for many years.
- past perfect continuous/progressive: They had been researching this for many years before they found
any significant results.
- future perfect continuous/progressive: By 2025, they will have been researching this for eleven years.

The past perfect situates one activity in the past before another activity. It is sometimes used in academic
writing.
- past perfect: They had researched this for many years before they found any significant results.
- past perfect continuous/progressive: They had been researching this for many years before they found
any significant results.
The difference between the past perfect and the past perfect continuous is that the continuous form puts more
emphasis on the length of the activity”.

Pronouns
What is a pronoun?
In English, pronouns are used in place of nouns, once the noun (the referent) is known. We can only make sense
of the pronoun if we know to whom or to what the pronoun refers.
In the following sentence, we understand that the He refers to Sir Walter Elliot.

Sir Walter Elliot (referent) was a vain man. He (pronoun) constantly looked at himself in the mirror.

Types of pronouns
Pronouns come in different forms depending on person (I, you, he/she/it), gender (female, male, neuter) and
number (singular/plural). They can also be divided into five broad categories:
1. subject/object pronouns
2. possessive determiners and pronouns
3. reflexive pronouns
4. demonstrative determiners and demonstrative pronouns
5. reciprocal pronouns.
1. Subject and object pronouns
Subject Object

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 Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st person I we me us
2nd person you you you you
3rd person he/she/it {one} they her/him/it them

Pronouns can function as the subject of a sentence – the person, thing or idea that is doing something. Pronouns
can also function as objects in a sentence – that which is having something done to it.
a. I gave the essay to you.
Question: Who is doing the giving? Answer: I (the subject)
Question: What is being given and to whom? Answer: the essay (direct object) to you (indirect object)
b. She doesn’t deserve it.
Question: Who is doing the not deserving. Answer: She (the subject)
Question: What doesn’t she deserve. Answer: it (direct object)
c. They played against us and won.
Question: Who is doing the playing. Answer: They (the subject)
Question: Against whom did they play? Answer: us (prepositional object)
Subject/object pronoun activity
In English most subjects occur before the verb and most objects follow the verb (the exception occurs in
sentences that use the passive voice.
Look at the paragraph below and hover your mouse over the pronouns to see whether they function as subjects
or objects and why.
Captain Wentworth had no fortune. He had been lucky in his profession, but spending freely, what had come
freely, had realised nothing. But, he was confident that he would soon be rich; full of life and ardour, he knew that
he should soon have a ship and that would lead to everything he wanted. He had always been lucky; he knew he
should be so still. There was an engagement between Anne Elliot and Captain Wentworth but Anne was
persuaded to believe the engagement a wrong thing - indiscreet, improper, hardly capable of success, and not
deserving it. Lady Russell, whom she had always loved and relied on, advised her against it. But it was not
merely a selfish caution under which she acted in putting an end to it. Had she not imagined herself consulting
his good, even more than her own, she could hardly have given him up.
(adapted from Persuasion by Jane Austen)
2. Possessive determiners and pronouns

Possessive determiners before the

Possessive pronouns
noun
Singular Plural Singular Plural
1st person my our mine ours
2nd person your your yours yours
3rd person His/her/its* {one’s} their hers/his/Ø theirs
* notice that there is no apostrophe in the pronoun its.

Pronouns can be used to indicate possession either as a determiner before the noun (or noun phrase) or as a
pronoun.
My (Determiner) shoes are red.
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Mine (Pronoun) are red.

Possessive pronoun activity

In the sentences below, select the correct pronoun from the drop down menu.

Her Hers judgment was upheld in Her - possessive determiner

the appeals court.

Mine My was reversed. Mine - possessive pronoun

Their Theirs paper was accepted by a Their - possessive

peer-reviewed journal. determiner

Her Hers required many changes. Hers - possessive pronoun

His Her was an unfortunate life. His - possessive pronoun

Mine My research uses both My - possessive determiner

quantitative and
qualitative methods.

Ours Our interviews were Our - possessive determiner

transcribed and then
analysed.

Their Theirs were not transcribed. Theirs - possessive pronoun

My Mine has taken longer than Mine - possessive pronoun

expected.

Yours Your writing is clear, concise Your - possessive determiner

and cohesive.

Check

3. Reflexive Pronouns

Singular Plural
1st person myself ourselves

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2nd person yourself yourselves
3rd person herself/himself*/itself {oneself} themselves*
*notice that it is himself and not hisself, themselves and not theirselves

Reflexive pronouns are always used in the same sentence as the noun (or noun phrase) to which they refer.
 The lecturer blamed herself for the confusion.
 I try to imagine myself receiving my degree.
 Dolphins protect themselves through a sophisticated social structure.
 The participants in the study contradicted themselves.
Reflexive pronoun activity
Which of the following sentences use the reflexive pronouns correctly.

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Demonstrative determiners and demonstrative pronouns

Singular Plural
Near this these
Far that those

Like the possessive determiners and pronouns, demonstratives can function as both a determiner, before a
noun, and as a pronoun replacing the noun.

DETERMINER PRONOUN

This (Determiner) survey must be completed. This (Pronoun) must be

completed

These (Determiner) surveys must be completed. These (Pronoun) must be

completed.

That (Determiner) survey should be tested before use. That (Pronoun) should be
tested before use.

Those (Determiner) surveys should be tested before use. Those (Pronoun) should
be tested before use.

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Both the demonstrative determiners and demonstrative pronouns also vary in relation to proximity (near or far)
and number (singularone or pluralmore than one ) in utterances and written texts.
These plural near lecture notes are easy to understand, but those plural far from the guest speaker are not.
This singular near student at the front asks relevant questions, but that singular far one at the back is asleep!
In order for a demonstrative to be used as a pronoun, the context has to be very clear.
 The listener or reader must know what this, these, that or those refers to.
 It is usually always better to use the determiner with a noun rather than just the determiner on its
own as a pronoun.
The examples below illustrate the point.
NO - A study of 7,000 recovering alcoholics showed that 3% were under the age of 20 and 18% were
between 21 and 30. Moreover, the study revealed that the average age of alcoholics seems to be
falling. This worries health officials.
In the above example, the pronoun this is used on its own. The reader has to scroll back and remember all the
information before the pronoun to make sense of the sentence.
YES - A study of 7,000 recovering alcoholics showed that 3% were under the age of 20 and 18% were
between 21 and 30. Moreover, the study revealed that the average age of alcoholics seems to be
falling. This trend worries health officials.
In the second example where the determiner + a noun, This trend, is used, the link is less ambiguous and the
reader has an easier job.
Demonstrative pronoun Activity
(This activity is adapted from: Academic Writing for Graduate Students (2012) by John M. Swales & Christine B.
Feak. University of Michigan Press and uses the NSW EPA report of 2014 as a source of text
examples http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/resources/soe09/09716atmos.pdf )
Choose a noun from the dropdown menu to add to the demonstrative pronoun to lessen the ambiguity of the
sentences and improve their flow.
1. In New South Wales, overall emissions from motor vehicles and commercial, industrial and domestic activities
have remained relatively stable. Despite
this changes stability standard upgrade project program
stability photochemical smog concentrations continue to exceed national air quality standards on a number
of days each year.
2. The AAQ NEPM sets a standard for PM10 of 50 micrograms per cubic metre (ug/m3) (24 hour-average).
This changes stability standard upgrade project prog
ram standard would not be exceeded on more than five days per year.
3. DECCW's air quality information system was upgraded in 2008 to make it more flexible and accessible.
This changes stability standard upgrade project program
upgrade , in conjunction with an improved data acquisition and telemetry system, has resulted in a number
of significant changes in how air quality data is reported and presented.
These changes stability standard upgrade project program
changes include: a revised Air Quality Index calculation, hourly updates of the Air Quality Index, six air
pollution categories instead of three, a new subscription service.
4. The NSW EPA has initiated a Woodsmoke Reduction program that targets woodheaters which are a significant
source of benzo(α)pyrene and other air toxins.
This changes stability standard upgrade project program
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 program aims at educating local government, and hence the community, about better management of wood
smoke and will therefore address particle and air toxic emissions simultaneously.
5. NSW will continue to work with other governments to develop appropriate controls at a national level. For
example, NSW is a member of a national working party, which is considering management options to reduce
emissions from small engines.
This changes stability standard upgrade project program
project was initiated by NSW and has been taken up at a national level.
4. Reciprocal Pronouns
Two common phrases used to express personal reference are the reciprocal pronouns, each other and one
another. Like reflexive pronouns, they are always used in the same sentence as the noun (or noun phrase) to
which they refer. However a reciprocal pronoun always refers to a plural (or conjoined) subject.
 Students should encourage and support one another in group projects.
 The two politicians shared such animosity towards each other that they could not work
constructively together in the committee.
 Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin did not trust each other.
 In many cases, both species benefit from the interaction with each other.
 Come on people now; smile on your brother; everybody get together, try to love one
another right now (lyrics from Get Together,a song written by Chet Powers)

What is passive voice?

In English, as in many other languages, it is possible to change the focus of an utterance or a written sentence
from the active to the passive (called active voice and passive voice by linguists).
This shift relates to who or what serves as the subject of the sentence.
 In the active voice, the subject of the sentence is the agent/actor of the action described by the
verb. The following sentence is in the active voice:
Ian Allison has studied the ice and climate of Antarctica.
In the sentence, ‘Ian Allison’ is the actor/agent, (also the subject), ‘has studied’ is the verb and ‘the ice
and climate of Antarctica’ is the object (what is being studied).
However, there are times when speakers/writers of English have reason to put the object of the action into the
subject position and this is called the passive voice:
The ice and climate of Antarctica has been studied by Ian Allison.
This is called ‘focal adjustment’1 and is similar to when a photographer focuses on the foreground or
background. There are many reasons why speakers and writers decide to shift from active to passive. To find out
more about passive voice, go to the other two tabs in this grammar area:
 Why the passive is used & activities
 How the passive is formed & activities
Why is passive used?
The use of the passive voice is not a grammatical error, despite what the wriggly green underlining of Microsoft
Word would have you believe.
There are three main reasons why a writer would choose to use the passive voice.
a) The agent is unknown, irrelevant or obvious
 Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, was assassinated in 1170.

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  An experimental solar power plant will be built in the Northern Territory.
 Mangoes are grown in the north of Australia.
 Penguins are found only in the southern hemisphere.
b) The agent is less important than what is being done or acted on.
 The flowers were removed and the seeds collected.
 Carbohydrates are produced by green plants in the presence of light and chlorophyll.
c) The agent is removed in order to be tactful or evasive
 The student was given some poor advice about subject selection.
 Budget errors were made.
Inexperienced writers often overuse or underuse passive voice.
Overuse of the passive can:
 weaken the narrative force (because the agent is lost or vague)
 lead to confusion (who has done what to whom?)
 appear to cover up gaps in knowledge
 produce unnecessarily wordy texts.
Underuse of the passive can mean that the writing:
 fails to connect the main ideas
 focuses on the irrelevant
 focuses too heavily on the agent (often the ‘I’ or the ‘we’).
Passive Voice Activity- Underuse and overuse of passive
This paragraph underuses the passive and focuses too heavily on the agent (the 'I').
I conducted a mixed method study over two separate but related phases: an initial quantitative phase, which
informed a second qualitative phase. I used a survey questionnaire as the method of data collection for Phase
1, while in Phase 2, I conduced semi-structured interviews. I involved a total of 176 participants in Phase 1
from a random sample of NPs, nurse managers and nurse policy advisors across Australian states and
territories. The theoretical framework I used to underpin the study was organisational change.
How would you rewrite this passage?

See the rewritten passage

A mixed method study was conducted over two separate but related phases: an initial quantitative
phase, which informed a second qualitative phase. A survey questionnaire was the method of data
collection for Phase 1, while Phase 2 consisted of semi-structured interviews. A total of 176 participants
were involved in Phase 1 from a random sample of NPs, nurse managers and nurse policy advisors
across Australian states and territories. An organisational change theoretical framework was used to
underpin the conduct of this study.

How is passive formed?

To change the active to the passive voice involves three steps.
Step 1 Move the object to the subject position at the beginning of the sentence
Eg. active voice: The manager will implement the changes next year.
passive voice: The changes ...
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 active voice: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927.
passive voice: The uncertainty principle …

Step 2 Change the verb to the passive

Eg. active voice: The manager will implement the changes next year.
passive voice: The changes will be implemented …
active voice: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927.
passive voice: The uncertainty principle was formulated …
The passive voice can be formed in any tense. It uses the auxiliary (to be) and all other elements of the English
tense and aspect system. Here are a few of the combinations that form the passive.
 with modals (eg. can, should, might, may)
Solar panels can be used to generate electrical power.
 with present simple
Solar panels are used to generate electrical power.
 with present perfect
Solar panels have been used to generate electrical power.
 with present continuous/progressive
Solar panels are being used to generate electrical power.
 with past simple
Solar panels were used to generate electrical power.
 with past continuous/progressive
Solar panels were being used to generate electrical power.
 with be going to for future
Solar panels are going to be used to generate electrical power.

Step 3 Drop the initial active voice subject or put it at the end of the sentence
Eg. active voice: The manager will implement the changes next year.
passive voice: The changes will be implemented next year.
or
passive voice: The changes will be implement next year by the manager.
active voice: Werner Heisenberg formulated the uncertainty principle in 1927.
passive voice: The uncertainty principle was formulated in 1927.
OR The uncertainty principle was formulated in 1927 by Werner Heisenberg.
Summary of steps
STEP 1: Move the object to the subject position
STEP 2: Change the verb to the passive
STEP 3: Drop the original subject or move it to the end of the sentence

Adapted from Monash University’s Language and Learning Online

Passive Voice Activity 2
Change each example from active to passive voice. Type your answer into the box. Do not include the original
active voice subject.
1. Johannes Salk developed the first polio vaccine in the 1950s.
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Chec k Show Cl ear

CORRECT ANSWER: The first polio vaccine was developed in the 1950s.

2. A South Australian company is launching the first 100% renewable energy utility company.
Chec k Show Cl ear

CORRECT ANSWER: The first 100% renewable energy utility company is being launched.

3. The committee made mistakes.

Chec k Show Cl ear

CORRECT ANSWER: Mistakes were made.

4. ANU scientists have returned the remains of Mungo Man to the traditional owners.
Chec k Show Cl ear

CORRECT ANSWER: The remains of Mungo Man have been returned to the traditional owners.

5. The cabinet has approved the drafting of the legislation.

Chec k Show Cl ear

CORRECT ANSWER: The drafting of the legislation has been approved.

Apostrophes
Apostrophes often cause writers a great deal of anxiety. Spend a little time on this section, read the explanations,
complete the exercises and you will become an expert on the use of apostrophes.
Apostrophes are used for two main reasons:
1.Missing letters (contractions or shortening)

Apostrophes indicate that a letter or letters have been left out of a word to shorten it. These are called
contractions:
do not > don’t
is not > isn’t
you are > you’re
it is > it’s
NOTE: Contractions are never used in formal academic writing. They are only used in speech and
informal texts.

2.Possessives
It is in using apostrophes to indicate the possessive (ownership) that writers have the biggest problems.
Possessive apostrophes indicate a ‘belonging to’ or ‘of’
the girl’s father (the father of the girl)
Charles’s shoes (the shoes belonging to Charles)
the hospital’s policy (the policy of the hospital)
the school’s curriculum (the curriculum of the school)
The possessive apostrophe is placed after the completed word to indicate ownership.
a) Singular nouns (only one)
For singular nouns, this means the apostrophe is placed after the noun and before the possessive ‘s’.
the boy’s attitude the university’s entrance requirements
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 David’s books my sister’s house
b) Plural nouns (more than one)
For plural nouns, this means the apostrophe is placed after the completed plural noun form.
the boys’ attitude the universities’ entrance requirements
NOTE 1: Those nouns that form the plural with something other than an 's' (irregular
nouns) also take the apostrophe after the completed plural noun form. This means the
apostrophe is before the 's'.
the Country Women’s Association
the people’s choice
NOTE 2: The apostrophe has nothing to do with the formation of the plural.
✓ pies and pasties ✗ pie’s and pastie’s

✓ girls and boys ✗ girl’s and boy’s

This rule applies even with acronyms or numbers.
✓ USBs ✗ USB’s

✓ the 1990s ✗ the 1990’s

c) Nouns already ending in ‘s’
singular
There are two options when forming the possessive with a singular noun that ends in an ‘s’ sound:
It was Charles’ house
or
It was Charles’s house
Both forms are correct.
plural
For plural nouns ending in an ‘s’ sound, there are again two options. In the case of a family called
Charles, we can identify their house thus:
the Charles house (here Charles is used as an adjective not a noun)
or
the Charlses’ house (Charles' house would be the singular form)
d) Possessive pronouns
Hers, yours, theirs, ours and its do not take a possessive apostrophe. However, the apostrophe is used
in one’s, someone’s, everybody’s, nobody’s.
NOTE: the use of an apostrophe in it’s indicates a letter is missing: it’s always means it is.

Apostrophe Activity 1
Complete each noun phrase below with the correct possessive noun from the dropdown menu.

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Apostrophe Activity 2
The paragraph below contains no apostrophes - although it should. Choose the correct word from the options
below.

Neither family approved of Georges career choice. They thought that catching butterflies was less than the ideal
vocation. Peoples attitudes towards work differ and its not always easy to determine what makes for an
individuals job satisfaction. The pursuit of butterflies can bring much pleasure and its attraction for George lay in
its exoticism. The butterflys beauty and its elusiveness also provided George with his greatest moments of
pleasure. Neither his mother-in-laws wealth nor his fathers threats could change Georges mind. Even Uncle
James opinion that he would end up being eaten by a green anaconda in the Amazonian jungle did not deter him.
The families attitude only made Georges resolve stronger. A butterfly catcher was what he wanted to be.

Neither family approved of George's Georges' career choice. They thought that catching butterflies was less
than the ideal vocation. People's Peoples' attitudes towards work differ and it's its not always easy to determine
what makes for an individual's individuals' job satisfaction. The pursuit of butterflies can bring much pleasure
and it's its attraction for George lay in it's its exoticism. The butterflies' butterfly's beauty
and it's its elusiveness also provided George with his greatest moments of pleasure. Neither his mother-in-
laws' mother-in-law's wealth nor his fathers' father'sthreats could change George's Georges' mind. Even
Uncle James's James' opinion that he would end up being eaten by a green anaconda in the Amazonian jungle
did not deter him. The families' family's attitude only made Georges' George's resolve stronger. A butterfly
catcher was what he wanted to be.

Semicolons ( ; ) adapted from Oshima, A. and Hogue A. (2006). Writing Academic English (4th ed). NY: Pearson Longman pp283-

283.

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Using semicolons is not difficult if you remember that a semicolon is more like a full-stop than a comma. It is a
very strong punctuation mark and should not be overused. There are three main ways in which semicolons are
used:
1. between two independent clauses that are closely connected
2. before some connectors and phrases when they are followed by an independent clause
3. between items in a list where commas have already been used.
1. Between independent clauses
A semicolon can be used between two independent clauses where the writer wants to stress the connection in
meaning. Note that a full-stop could also be used but the writer has chosen the semicolon to emphasise the link.
 For all he knew, his wife might be dead and buried by this time. He would probably never see her again
but end his days where he was. Well they wouldn't be many; this was not a place that made old
bones. (Henry Handel Richardson, The Fortunes of Richard Mahony)
 Elephants have been known to cover the corpses of dead elephants with leaves and branches, whereas
they do not cover sleeping elephants; they have a concept of death. (Grovier, T. (1997) A Practical Study of
Argument (4th ed)
 The seeds could not be used; they had sprouted.
2. Before some connectors and phrases
Some connectors (called conjunctive adverbs) such as: so, however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, can start
a new sentence. If they are used to join two independent clauses in the one sentence, a semi-colon is required
before the connector and a coma after:
 The density of PYY cells is generally decreased in sporadic IBS (table 1.1 and figure 1.4); however,
whether this increases food intake and appetite in IBS patients remains to be established. (Watson, R. R.
(2014). Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Abdominal Obesity)
 The intention behind the regulations was that there be a segregated account for each customer; however,
the regulations were so poorly drafted that it was unclear on what terms this trust was to operate. (Hudson,
A. (2014). Great Debates in Equity and Trust)
 Jane Austen grants each of her characters a distinctive and subtly constructed voice; indeed, they are
carefully distinguished by their speech.
The same rule applies to transitional phrases such as for instance, for example, that is, in fact, as a result. The
semicolon precedes and the coma follows:
 Most Australian languages have about twenty distinctive sounds (or 'phonemes'); that is, about twenty
letters are needed in an ideal alphabet. (Dixon R. (1980). The Languages of Australia)
 It is the misuse of language that most distinguishes Jane Austen's characters; for example, the inability of
Lucy Steele to use language properly is a mark of her moral confusion.
3. Between items in a complicated list
Semicolons are used to distinguish items in a list if some of those items already contain comas:
 Among the minor characters in Emma that populate the village of Highbury are Mrs Goddard who runs
the school in which Harriet Smith boards; Robert Martin, the respected young farmer who wants to marry
Harriet; and Mr and Mrs Cole, the tradespeople who are determinedly making their way into Highbury
society.

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