456 CHAPTER STEAOY.

S"AIE 00sNER ANALysIS

o I By etvpioyiog th sign conveitricur adopted in tire earlier chapteta. we cart cnnrpure the instas -

.L
o
taneous power supplied or abrothed by any device as lhe product of the ittsrantanentis volt -

k\; Instantaneous age across the device and the instantaneous current through it.

Consider the circuit slrtrtsrr in Fig. t.I. In general, the steady.state voltage and current for
Power
_____________________________
the uerwork can he written as

c(r) cos(raz o,.)

•

STEADYSTATE
=
V,, + 9.t

i(t) «t) Ott carr(v,r + o,) 9.2

POWER ANALYSIS Tire instantaneous power is lhcn

t)!)
(Ç) Li r(r) It(l)i(t)

L I vr,isr cos(orr +
o,) c05(uN +
o,) 9.3

Figure 9.1
En1,loyitre the following trig000nretric ideotity.
W Know how to catculate instantaneous and average Simple ac netwark.

power in ac circuits eos4, c054,. =

[rros(4, -

A.) 4-
cos(41 + 4,.)) 9.4

tG Be able to calculate the maximum average power

we tirai that tIre ittsrant;rnearus power can be written ris
/
transfer for a toad in an at circuit

C Know how to calculate the effective or rms value for

periodic waveform o) +
cos(2a,,r ±
of)] 9.9
-
-

C Know how to calculate real power, reactive power,

complex power, and power factor in ac circuits Note tirar tire irtstantaneous poster consists of twa teruts. Tire first tents is a sorstant (i.e.. it
m Understand how to correct the power factor In at is time indeyenrlerrt). and lite second term is a cosine wave of twice the excitatino frequency.

circuits We sill esamine this equation in more detail in Section 9.2.

tYt Understand the importance of sutety and the

consequences of ignoring it when working with
power

EXAMPLE 9.1 The circuit in Fig. 9.1 has the follosving partunteters: vr(t) 4co5(t + 6(F)V arid
Z 2 /390 (1. We wish to determine equations for the ctrrrent and the instantaneous power
Courtesy of PPM Energy as ;r furrctítrn of time and pior these functions with thu voltage nu a single graph for

crrrtrpanison.

SOLUTION Siuce
HE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY MWh (une megawatt hoar) of renewable power generation 4L
I can

ESTIMATES THAT wind energy iv the second offset approximately ru1oa pounds of greenhouse gao emissions.
o'JIon largest new source of power generation in the The large wind turbines, such as that shown in the phuto,
United Slates, Inllnwiog natural gas. For example, the American typically hove an output of about z.y MW. These systems cars

Wind Energy Associatinn that 2004 there

states fl was a total also employ ultracapacitors that provide backup power to then
of 6725 MW of wind energy available. By the end of September ensure covtinunus operation iv the event of a power failure. [hi fl t i(r) =
2cvs(cot + 3(10) A
2006. that number had climbed to 10,492 MW. Although wind turbines are a rapidly grewing segment of Butt tirar pl) contatos a &
The attitude of the
Front Eq. 19.5f,
papulotion has shifted toward consuntp the renewable energy business, they are by no means the only term and a morno wave w;th

tian of renewable energy rather than carborr-dionide.producing source. Nevertheless, lheyappear to he a viable alternative in
twicerhefreqvencyaf i4rl jt(,) =
4[cos(30') '+ cos(2uf + 990))
anddt).
energy for two reasons; first, increases in electricity and gas many situations. fegardless xi the manner in which power is 3.46 + 4cos(2ut + 990) W

prices; and second, government tau incentives to redace the generated, a number of important terms and concepts most be
current, is shown in Fig. 9.2.
A plot f rins fuoctiott. together with plots of the volt;rge and
country's dependence on foreign sources. Annther advantage learned in order to understand the fundamentals of electric
As be in Uris figure, the instantaneous power lias a dc ar constant term and at see -

can seen
of this technology is the fact that it is estimated that technology. < <
power rind term sshcsse fre4rrerscy is twice that of the voltage or current.

455
Ii

SCCOtON 9.2 AVERAGE POWER 457

45 CCAPTER o STOADY -STATE POP/EC ANALYSIS

8.0- ,. f'. Figure 9.2 and for a litro/e revicsire r,onjt,

6.0 / \P(o) I \ I Plots of nO). 1(1), and p(t) for p =

V 1, cos(9O)
/ \ I I the circuit in
Example 9.t 2
•

4.0
/ 4\ / \ ). usingf=6a02.
2.0 \
0.0
\
/
/
j .1
/ Because purely reactive nn1nideees bvorb
c'!einenLc. The purely reactiv7 network operatcs in
no
average power, they are often called Ios.tles.v
a mode in which it stores energy over one
i(r) part of lhe period and releascs it over another.

-6.0
EXAM P1 E 9.2 We wish
.

to determine the average power absorbed by the impedance Shown 10 Fig. 9.3
..80
ttttttittiitittiitti(°i
not, 0.015 0021 00240.027 0970
n.eoe noon unos soco sota Figure 9.3 ....

Example EL circuit.

213

tov)
The average value of any

integrating the functiott

periodic
over a
waveform (e.g.. a sinusoidal function) can be computed by

complete period and dividing this result by the period.

9 2 - '2 (1

Therefore, if the voltage aitd current are given by Eqs. (9.11 and (9.2). respectively, the aver- Average Power
age poweris

f
_________________

E' p(t) dr SOLUTION From lhe figure we note that

i
V l',/ lO/ 3 53 I5 A
1,155eos(ose±0,)cons(ovt*8,)v1t 9,6

Therefore,
svhere p0 is arbitrary. T 2m/ea is rise period of the voltage or carrettt, and P ts measured ti
=
=
3.53 A and O =
l5
watts. Acnually, we may average the waveform over any integral number of periods so that Hence,
Eq. (9.6) can also be wrilten u.s

P t/0i0cos(8, 0)
-

I
P = -

I V0f0 eos(ot ~ 0,,) cos(osr

-

0,) de 9,7
nTJ, I
(l0)(3.3)cos(6O' j50)
-

where is
positive integer.
-

o a

Employing Eq. (9.5) for ilte expression in (9.6), we obtain =

12.5W

I r,,_r .__..t_
V5, tn Since the inductor absorbs no
power, we can
employ Eq. (9.10) provided that ¶e in that
[cos(3,
'

p II,) ces(2rvi 0. 0)Jdn

j
= ± 9.8
._ - '

equation is the vohaze across the resistor. Using vollage division. sve oblain
We could, of cotirse, plod through the indicated imcgratian: however, with a little lrc- (loLX2
we can deterntine lhe result by inspectitsn. Tue floG term is ittdcpcitdetsl (of t.anrl 2 +
=
7.fl7/V
thought
and therefore.
therefore a constant integration. lolegrating tllC constant over the period and tli duty
lo the

by lhe period simply resnlts in the original constant. The second nirist is a cosine svavc. lo is p (7.07)(3.53)
seell known Iltat the average value of a cosine wave over one consplete periovl or an inoegral 2

iszero. aodnhereforethe secondteritt in lo view vsf this 12.5W

nuntberofperiods Eq.19.Slvaitishes.
disctission. Eq. (9.8) reduces tO
In addition, nsing Ohm's lasv, sse could also employ lIre nnprnssions

FVrrf0edtis(On' e) [hintj
A frequently used equation or
Nota Iltat since cos( -0) cos(0), the argutneot for lhe cosine futtctieti can he either fõrealcutattng the average
ll -

0 or 0,. In addition, unte

-
that 0,. f( in the attgle of lIre circuit
-

inipedsince its power. P =

l'2R
shosvn in Fig. 9.1. Thereforc,for a purely resistive cirutuit,
svhere onceagain we mustbe careful that the V,1 and in these equartons refer to the
t .

voltage across tire resisror urU die currelto tltrouglt it, respeclively.
-

9
 SECTIOt 9.2 AVERAGE POWER 459 460 CHAPTER 9 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS

ernin
For the circuit shown in Fig. 9.4, we wish to determine both the total average power EXAMPLE 9.3
absorbed and the total average power supplied. E9.1 Find the average power absorbed by each resistor in the network in Fig. E9.L ANSWERt P 7.20 W;
P,5 =
7.20 W.

f. FIgure 9.4

Example circuit for 2fl

illustrating a power
balance. 12/60'V 1- 1
1254d/V
O

Figure 194 L I I

E9,2 (liven the network in Fig. EO.2, find theaverage powerabsorbed by each passive circuit ANSWERS Pm 56.60 W;
element and the total average power supplied by the cutreut source. P,0 53.96W; r
=
0;
90.50 '.1/,

From the figure we note that SOLUTION

t 3A
3fI
(s4A J20
l2L l2/45
= = =
A
2 -fl 2.24 /fl7 Figure E9.2
and therefore,
I I + '2 [h I. I). t
=

When delerininiisg average power, if more than one source is present in a network, sve can
=
3 +
5.36/7' Saperposittan is nut
use any of our nersvork analysis techniques to find the necessary voltage and/or current to

applicable tn pnwer, Why? compute the power. However, we most remember that in general we cannot apply superposi-
=
8.15/62.10' A
tron to power.

The average power absorbed in the 4-fl resistor is

P LV55!u =

(l2)(3) 18W EXAMPLE 94 Consider the network shown in Fig. 9.5. We wish to determine the total average power
absorbed and supplied by each element.

The average power absorbed in the 2-fl resistor is

SOLUTION From the figure we note that

l2
P, =
(5.34)1(2) =
28.7W

[hint]
Therefore, the total average power absorbed is and
underthefolinwlngcandliinn
l2/- 6 439+ j6
7,44tA
P4 18 + 28.7 46.7 \V
= =
= =

Note that we could have calculated the power absorbed in the 2 -fl resistor using 1/2 V),/R
if we had first calculated the voltage across the 2 -fl resistor.
() V The power absarbed by the 2 -fl resistor is

The total average power supplied by the source is

P2=,t,,=(t2)(6)=36W
-

6v =
i is positive, power is
=
V5il,vcos(O,, e,) being ,bonbnd. i
.

lIP- Vis negatise, pnweris _t /Ift

being generated.
=
(12)(8.15)cos(45'
-

62.10') 87

=
46.7W
Figure9.5-.
t2L2.V() 20 ± ezv

Thus, the total average power supplied is, of course, equal to the total average posver absorbed. Example RE circuit with I
two soarces.
 SECTION 9.2 AVERAGE POWER 461 462 CHAPTER 9 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS

According to the direction of l. the 6 /0'-V source is absorbing power. The power it -t In our study of resistive networks, we addressed the problem of mavintunt poner Iratisfer loa

absorbs is given by J ) resistive load. Ve showed that if lhe network excluding the load was represented by a

Maximum Thdvenin equivalent Circuit: maximum posver transfer svoald result if the valse of the load
'VaIcos(9,.. 9) resistor was equal to the Thdvenits equivalent resislance (i.e., RL Rfl). We will now fees
-

= -

Average Power amine this issue within the present context to determine the load impedance for the network
=
-(6)(7.44) cos[00 -

(36.2l0)) Transfer sltosvtt in Fig. 9.6 that svill result is maximum average posver being absorbed by the load
=
.

impedance Zr..
The equatiou fur average power at tIle loud is
At this point an obvious question arises: How do we know whether the 6 -V source is
-

supplying power to the remainder of the network or absorbing it? The answer to this question i.

!V014c05(80 os,) cit

________

is aclually straightforward. If we employ our passive sign convention that was adopted in the
-

earlier chapters-that is. if the current reference direction enters the positive terminal of
the source positive-the source is absorbing power. If the answer is negative,
and the answer is VOC the
I. The phasor current and vohage at the load are given by expressions
the source issupplying power to the remainder of the circuit. A generator sign convention could
hare been used, and under this condition the interpretation of the sign of the answer would Inc voo
I, = 9.12
________

reversed. Note that once th sign convention is adoplcd and used, the sign for average poster : ac circuit Z, ~ Z,
will be negative only if the angle difference is greater than 900 (i.e., O e4 > 900).
- -

vooz,
To obtain the power supplied to the network, we compute 'I as Figure 9.6 VL 9.t3
Zn + Z,
=
I, ~ 13 Circuit used to exantine
sshere
maximum uverago pswer
=

6L9 + 7A4/ -36.2l°

_______

transfer,
Zr5 Rn: + jX0, 9.14

and
=
11.29 710° A
Z. =
R, + jX,, 9.tS

Therefore, the power supplied by the 12 /-V source using the generator sign convention is
[h fl ti The magnitude of the phnsor current ttnd voltage are givett by the expressions
This impedance-matching
P5 =
-(l2)(ll.29) cos(30° + 7,100) concept Iran Important 9.16
= 54W
issue in tine design of high- ~
Ro) +
(X.0 ~
X,)2]'
speed computer chips and
nnetherboards. furtuday's
and hence the power absorbed is equal to the power supplied,
hlnh'speed chIps with v
V(Rt + x)"2 9.17
internal ctocks ruonine [(,, +
Rj2 ~ (X0, 4- Xc)1W2
atabaut3Gllzand
LearnnigAssEssMENTs mulhe,bnards with
speed above 1GHz.
a bus
The phase angles for lhe phasor cttrrent and voltage are coutained in the quantity (o,,, -

supplied by each element in the network ANSWER: Note also that O,., O-. O, and, in addition.
.

£9.3 Determine the total avemge power absorbed and

-
=

impedance matching is nec -

its Fig. £9.3. Pra -69.4 W;

esraryin nrdertu obtain the
-j2 11 v.r " required speed for signal cos i., =
9.18
P40 49.6W; Pc 0. prupagatlon. Although this (R Xj"
______________________

=
4-
high.speed transmIssIon tine
is based on adistdbnted Substituting Eqs. (9.161 10(9.lgl into Eq. (9.11) yields
l2A O 4V circuit (discussed later In
electrical engineering I
°'. =
9.19
-

courses), the Impedance-

______________________

matchIng technique for the

2
(R g,)2 ~
(x +

Figure
.

transnisslnn line is the

(I( R. Once again,
'e
which could, of course, be obtaitted directly front Eq. (9,16) using P,
=

same as that of lhe lumped

ANSWERO
a forethought will sare us some work. From the standpoint of maximizing Pt.. V,, is a
little
E9.4 Given the networkin Fig. E9.4, determine thxtotal.avnrago powerabuorbettor supplied panametercirruitror
maxhnum avenage power constant. The quantity (Xn 4- x) absorbs no posver. and therefore any nonzero sabe of this
=
-55.4 V/;
by each element. '4/r
211 P1,- =
55 W; transfer, quantity only serves to reduce I',. Fleece, we can eliminate this term by selecting
X,, -Xi.,,. Our problem tlsets redsccs tot ttnaximizing
=

22.2W;

i41
=
rn

Pan 27.7W; c
=
0.
I V,,R,
j2 '' 9.20
~
R,,)5
24 Hosvever. this is tine same quantity we maximized in the purely resistive ease by selecting
t2V R, =
Rn,. Tlnercfonre. for masimuns average ponver transfer tolhe load shosvn its Fig. 9.6. Z,
should be chosett so that

Zt=I?,+jXcRjXns=Z 9.21
Figure E9.4
 SECTION 9.3 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER 463 464 CHAPTER 5 STEADY.STATE POWER ANALYSIS

Finally. if the load inrpeclautcc is purely resistive (i.e., x1 o). the condition for mexi -

______________jtll______________ ______________jilt

f
morn average power transfer can be derived via the expression

"Pt
4LQ A 20 40 4LOA 20

where P1 is the cxprc.ssion in Ec1. (9.19) with X (I. Tire' abrir af fl 1/lilt rtta.ciruizrs F,
rr,rcicr the rendition XL =
O is
101 (bl
RL =
VR5 + X15 9.22

__________j111

1 FIgure 9.7
Circolts for itlustraling maximum average power transfer.

EXAMPLE 9.6 For the circoit shosvn in Fig. 9.Ia, we wish to find the value of ZL for mtraimum average
power transfer. In addition, let us determine lhe value of the muxitnum average power deliv-
ered tolhe load.

SOLUTION We uvill first reduce the circuit, with the exception of the load, loa Thdvenin eqaivalent circuit.
The open -circuit voltage cant b computed from Fig. 9.8b. The equations for the ciccuit are

Given the circuit in Fig. 9.7a. wish to find the value of Z for maximum average power EXAMPLE 9.5
we V -4-4=(24-j4)11
transfer. In addition, we wish to find the value of the maximum average posver delivered to [Ii in t] =
-2ff
the load.
When there isa dependent
____________________

Solving for 1. sve obtain

saurce. both 9,, and l, must
at the load. The circuit in Fig. 9.7b is SOLUTION 1 /_45
To solve the problem, we form a Thdvenin equivalent be round and Z computed =

used to compute the open -circuit voltage trom lhe equation

4(2) [hint] V.,

The opco-cincoil voltage iv then
=
---(4) =
5.26/ -9.4(iV In this Thevnoin
.

analysis. Zrsj-.
+6 jI
t. Remove Z and find the

derived from the circuit in Fig. 9.7c. As shown voltage across the upee
The Thdvenin equivalent impedance can be terminals. 9=.
in the figure, a. Determine the impedance =
-3 --jt
4( + 1 open terminals
'
1.41 + jO.43 17 Zm at the
+3.t)5/-l6157
=
V
= --

with alt independent

=

6 + jI
sources made zero.
The short-circuit current be derived frotn
Construct the futluwing rir
ens
Fig. 9.Ic. The equations for this circuit ace
Therefore. Z for maxitnam average power transfer is
-

coil and determIne I and

V;+4=(2+14)L -21=
1L 1.41 -

jø.4317 p1.
-4 -21 + (2
-

J2)Ç
the in the load
With ZL as given previously, corrertt ts
V =
-2(1 -

ij
= =
1.87 L2 A
fHl Voe Zh
Solving these equations for 1w yields
=
-(I + j2) A

The Thdvenin equivaleut impedance is

Therefore, the maxinsurn ttverage posver transferred to the load
is then

V 3+jl
1)rRc (l.87)2( 1.41) 2.47W 1 J1 fl
= -

Pc 1+12
 SECTION 9.3 MAXIMUM AVERAGE POWER TRANSFER 465 466 CHAPTER 9 STEAOY-sTATE POWER ANALYSIS

absorbed by
Therefore, for maximum average power transfer the load impedance should he
f. lo the precediuc sections of this chapter, we have shown that the average power
/ • a resistive load is directly dependent on the type, or types, ol sources that are delivering polver
=
I ~
j1 11 was !2R, and if
Effective or to the load. For example, if the source was dc, the average power absorbed
The current itt this load Z is then two types of
the source was sinusoidal, the average power was 1/2 1,R. Although these
rins Values
Vw -3 -JI waveforms ore they are by no meatts the only waveforms We will
extremely importani.
l.58/ -l6L57A encounter in circuit analysis. Therefore, a tcchuiqtie by svltich we can compare the e)fectir -e
-

Zm + 2
useful.
ness of different sources in delivering power to a resistive load would be quite
1-lence, the maximum average power transferred to the load is .L. Figure p.8 To accomplish this comparison, we define what is called the effective t'edtte of a periodic
iraveforttt. representing either voltage or cttrrettt. Although either quantity could he used,
wit
Circuits for illustrating
([ 58)2(1)
-

svill ontploy current in the definition. Hence, we deline the effective value of a periodic cur-
maximum average power
rent its a constata or dc value. which as current would deliver the same average posver to rt
=
1.25W transfer.
resistor R. Let us call the constant current 1,11. Then the average power delivered to a resistor
as a result of this current is
-j211 i j4fJ -j2t3 -/213
j4fl P =
l1R
•

-I. Sittnlatly. the average power delivered to a resistor by a periodtr current i(t) is

P=ji2(l)Edt
11

V
Vr , VOE Equating these two expressions, we find that

4V
J° 12(r) dc 9.23

___________

p
___________
Note that this effective value is found by first determittittg the square of the current, then

contpttting the rtvcrage or nwtttt valse, and fiurtlly taking the square toot. Titus, in "reading"
(a) (b) (ci the ntatltematical Eq. (9.23), sve ore deterntiniog the root meati square, svhich we abbreviate
as mis, and therefore is called ',r,,
Since dc is a constant, the rots value of dc is simply the constant value. Let us nosy deter -

ttsina the rots value of other wnxcfortttr. The toast intportattr svavefortrt is rite sinusoid, and
therefore, sve address this particular one in dte follosving example.

EXAMPLE 9.7 We svistt to Compute the rats value of the waveform i(n) =
l ens (tar
-

I)), which has a

period ofT 2w/ta.

SOLUTION Suhstitutiutg these expressions into Eq. (9.23) yields

p /r, eOS2(t,tt -

8)
dc]
Using the trig000tnetric identity

cost4t + -cos2th

sve find that the preceding equatintt can be expressed as

f fsv/afl I 1 )t(2
-cos(2u1
fu1j [ 28)j dtí
+ -

Since weknow that the average or mean value of a cosine wave is eero.

i =

,(s_
I Ir \ 2r/]t!~ t

lv[
9.24
-

I,3) j
-
=
 SECTION 9.4 EFFECTIVE OR RMS VALUES 467 468 CHAPTER 9 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS

Therefore, the rms value of a sinusoid is equal to lhe maximum value divided by the V. a -

Deterusine the value of the current waveform in Fig. 9,10 and use this value to compute
Hence, a sinusoidal current with a maximum value of delivers the same average power EXAM PIE 99 russ

the average power delivered to a 2-12 resiator through which this current is flowing.
to a resistor R as a dc current with a value of Recall that earlier a phasor X was
defined as for a sinusoidal wave of the form K5, cosfyje -I- 6). This phasor cars also
e--

value is
be represented as K/V/ if the units are given in rms. For example. l20L V rms is SOLUTION The current waveforns is periodic with a period of 1' 4 s,The nus

equivalent to 17O) V.

Osusing the rIns values for voltage astd current, the average power can be written. in
I =

{i[ f 1(4)2 dt +
J(_4)2 di] }
I6hI4)]112
:(l6t
general, as
+

co(è0 lOs)
The power absorbed by a resistor R is
The average power delivered to a 2 -fl resistor with this current is

9.26 P =
!,,,R =
(4)2(2) =
32 W

In dealing svith voltages and currents in numerous electrical applications, it is intporraur te

kuow whether tlte values quoted are maximum, average, rats, or what. We are fumiltar with
the 120-V electrical outlets in ironic. In this case, the 120V is tIre ins value of lire volt-
ac oar
Figure 9.SO .4 Current (Al
age itt home. The maximum peak value of this voltage is l20aJ = 170V. The voltage
our or
Waveform used to i(t)
at our electrical outlets could be svritten us 170 cur 377, V. The nraainsuni or peak value must
ihinatrate rntS values.
be given if write the voltage in Ibis form. There should be no question in our minds that
sve

titia is the peak value. It is common practice lo specify the voltage rating of ac electrical
devices in terms of the rats voltage. For exantple, if you examiue an incandescest light bulb,
you will see a voltage rdtine of 120 V. svlsich is tIre rasa value. For nosy we avill add art nua tu

our voltages and currents lo indicate that we are using russ values in our calcutzttions.

We svish to compute tire nus value of the voltage waveform shown ia Ftg. 9.9. EXAM PIE 9.8

The waveforna is period T 3 The equation for the voltage in the titun SOLUTION
periodic with s.
=

frame O us t W 3 s is

4,V

s(t)= 0V 1<tW2s
-4r+8V 2<tW3s

The rms value is

[f (4r)dt (0) de
+f(8 4t)2
-

= +
(64t -
±
!)r)]"2
1.89 V

v(r) (v) f.. Figure 9.9

Waveform used to
Illustrate mis valuus,

-
5\
 SECTION 9.5 THE POWER FACTOR 469 470 CHAPTER 9 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS

E9.9 The Current waveform in Fig. 09.9 is flowing thraugh a 10-Il resistoc Determine the ANSWER: P 80 W.
consumes 80 ltW at a pf of 0.707 lagging from a 480-V rms line. The
EXAM P1 E 9.1 0 An industrial load
average power delivered to the resistor.
transmission line resistance from the power companye transformer to the plant is 0.08 0.
Let us detertnitte the power that must be supplied by the power company (a) under present
1(t) CA). conditions and (b) if the pf is somehosv changed to 0.90 lagging. (It is economically advan-
4 tageous to have a power factor us close to one as possible.)

- SOLUTION a. The equivalent circuit for these conditions is shown its Fig. 9.11. Using Eq. (9.27), we

:
B 10 obtain the magnitude of the rtnts current into the plant:
- tin)
-

Pr
figure E9.9 lew =

(pf)(V)
[hint]
Technique
(88)(t0)
t5iveeP5, pf, and v,,,,, (0.707)(480)
determine 1,mr =
259.3 A rttts
a.
ThenP5=P1+.5,,R15,,
where tu the lIce The power that usust be supplied by the power company is
resistance.
The power factor is a very important quantity. Its importance steals fl part Irons the economic
impact it has on industrial users of large amounts of povver. In this section we carefully define
9 Ç "S 't. + (O.08)1,,,
tltis tertn and then illustrate its significance via some practical examples. The Power =
88,000 + (0.08)(259.3)
lo Section 9.4 showed that a toad operating in tlte ac steady state is delivered
we an aver-
Factor 93.38 kW
age power of
P =
V,,j,,,,, cos(0 -

o) b. Suppose now that the pf in somehow changed to 0.90 lagging but the voltage remaino
constant at 480 V. The rats load current for this condition is
We svill now further define thc terms in this important cqnution. The product is
referred to as the apparent potter. Although the term
cos(0,.
-

e,) is a dimensionless qualt-

'rest -

lity, and the units of P are apparent power is normally stated ia volt-amperes (VA) or
watt.s,
(pf)(V)
kilovolt-amperes (isVA) to distinguish it from average power.
We now define the (,oee'er factor (p1) as the ratio of the average power to the apparent (88)(t0)
power; that is, (0.90) (480)
=
203.7 Arms
pf.---cos(0-- ) = Under these cunditions the power company must generate

where "S =
"L ±
(0.08)l,,,
=
88,000 + (0.O8)(203.7)
cos0 -

o,) =
cos0, 9.2
=
91.32kW

0z, is the phase angle of the load impedance and is often referred to
as
The angle 0 0, Note carefully the differettce between the two cases. A simple change in the pf of the
-

the powerfacsorungle. The two extreme positions fur this angle correspond to a purely resis- toad from 0.707 lagging to 0.90 lagging has had an interestiitg effect. Note that in the first
tive load svhcre °zu O and the pf is I, and the purely reactive load where 11z, ±90° and
the power company must generate 93.38 kW in order to supply the
=
case
plant with 88 kW
the p1 is 0. It is, of course, possible to have a unity pf for a load containitig 8. L. and C ele- of power because lhe low pouver fiector means that the line 1osses will be
high -5.38 laW.
ments if the values of the circuit elements use such that a zero phase angle is obtained at the However, in the second the
case power company need only generate 91.32 kW in order to
particular operating frequency. supply the pinta uvitlt its required power, and the corresponding line tosses are only 3.32 kW.
There is, of course, a whole range of pswer factor asgles between ±90° and 0°. If the toad
< 0°.
ivan equivalent RC cotnbinstiott, then the pf attgle lies between the limits -90° <. tt-,
On the otlter hand, if Ilte load is an equivalent AL combination, then the pf angle lies between
the limits O < O, < 90°. Obviously, confusion in identifying the type of load could result.
due to the fact that cosOz, cos( -øzj. To circumvent this problem. the pf is said to be Figure 9ia ...
sou ct

either leading or lagging, where these two across refer so the phase of the curtem ,s'izli respect Example circuit for
to the voltage. Since the current leads the voltage in an AC load, the toad has a leading pf.
In
,//
rats
enantining changes in
a similar muniter. an AL load has a lagging p1: therefore, load impedances of Z1
I jl 81 Vs ±
ua'nisg
-

pnwer fuctnr.
-

480\t rats
0.707 leading and
-

and =
2 + jl (1 have power factors of cos( -45°) =

cos(2657°) 0.894 lagging, respectively.

 POWER NALYSIS
SECTION 9 E COMPLEX POWER 471
472 CHAPTER 9 STEXOY -STATE

This example cleanly indic.ites the eLottitiiiir tilipaet of the load snuG,
-

o,) =
0. As retitli a resistor absorbs real power (P > 0) but does aol absorb o
posver tiiclstr. The cost
of producin reSult C power (Q 0). For an toductor, 11. 0 -

90° and
electriciLy for a Lace electric utility c.tti easily be in the billions of dollars. A low
power factor at lhe load means that the utility generators toast be capable of carrying note P = V / eos(O0°) =
O
current at constant voltage, and hey must also stipplv poster for higher 1, R1, losses than =
' ' ' stis(90 ) > O
would be reqaired if the load's power factor sscre high, Since line losses ir.present enemy
expended in heat and benefit no one, the utility wtll Insist that a plant ntaint,ttn a high p1. An inductor absorbs reactive poster httt does not absorb real power. Repeating for a capact
-

typically 09 lagging. and adjust the rate it charges a Custotli r th it does tot conform lo this tor, we get II, O, -90° and
-

requirement. We svill demonstrate a simple and econontical techniqitc for achievine this poster
factor correctiomm itt a futuro section,
P =
V,,,,1,,,,, cos (-90 ) =
O

QV,,,1,,,sin( -90j<0
tints' negative.
does tot ahsst b any real power: however, the reactive ptrss'cr is
A capacitor
How do ste negatise reactive power? Referring buck to Fig. 9.2, note that the
interpret the

I .e VIII 1) SS E S S M E NT voltage and current are specified such that they satisfy the passive sign convention, tu this
case, the product of the voltage and current gives us the power absorbed by the impedance in
ANSWER Power saved is
E9.'lo Au industrial toad consumes 100kW atO 707 p1 lagging The 60 -Hi line voltage at the
that figure. If tite re.tt.ttve power absorbeti by the cap'scttor is mal.ative then the cap cttor
3,771 LW,
480_V ritta. The iratmsmtssmsn-ltne resistance between the power company trans-
.

load
-

must be supplytne reactis e power The fact that capacttort are a source ol reactive power wtll
.

tu
, ,

former and the load is 0.1 1h. Deterntinc the puwer savings that could he obtained tIthe pf is
be uttltied
. .

in the power faclor correctiomi

nest s 'ctton on

changed tu 0.94 lug"ing. Li We see that reststors absorb only real poster. witije inductors and capacitors absorb only
reactive power. What is a fundantental difference between these elements? Renistors only
absorb energy. On the ether baud. capacitors and inductors store energy and thee release it
back to the circuit. Since inductors aitd capacitors absoib oitly meactive power and itot real
power. sve can conclude that re.tctive power is related to energy storage in these elemenLs.
Nose let's substitute
V,,,, E,,,, Z iitto Eq. (9.29). Multiplying!,,,,
* I = e

sieady-stttte power, it is cuntenieut to introduce another qttaniity sshicli is

stud', of o
-

In our tic ,

coinntonly called coinple.v prtii'vr. To deselop the relationship betssecim this quanttty sad
-
•
I ytelds I,,,. The complex power absorbed by an impedance can be obtained by multiplying the
others we have presented its the preceding sections, concider ilte circuit shossut ti Fit. 9.12. Corn p [ex square of the mis ntagnitude of ilte cancel llosving through that itupedance by the impedance

The couspk's power is defined to be s v,,,,,t,, (I, ,,z)i,, E,,,,1,,,Z /,,Z 1,,,)!? jX) 935
-

± P -I- jQ
-
= = =

920
Instead of substituting for V,rn, in Eq. (929), let's substitute soc
S V,,,,,t,

,(')
'

I fIr iheti
= =
V Y5 =
V,(& + jfl)° =
P + jQ 9.36
sthcre t refers to the contplex conjugate til Err,,: that is. ti L. -

tOtS

It,. In It, Complex poster is then

-
-
.

This expression tells us that we call calculate the couitplec power absorbed by au adntituattcc

by multiplying the square of the ross magnitude of the voltage across the admittance by the
,/, 9.30
'

s =
v i, n, c.... conjugate of the admittance. Suppose the box in Fig. 9. t2 contains a capacitor. The admu, -

tance for .t capacitor is ,ii,tC. Pltiggina into the eqnation above yields
or
-

S l,, I,, cos(5, o,) + jl(,,,I,,, sin(1) tI,) 9.3!

-

=
-

S VjioC)e -jeemCV,,
,

=
937

is here. of 5,
course. 0, - =
Eq. (9.31) that the real pan of the complex
R. We note front Figure 9.i2
of S ste call the ,eiuciii'i' or Note tIle negattte sigit on th' complec power. This agrees svith our pres ions statetsient that a
poster is simply the real or escroW' poser. The intaginary p.irt Circuit nsod to enplain power
capacitor does not absorb teal power bitt is a source of reactive power.
rjitttdrtitiire pi,ii r. Therefore, cottiplex poster 'till be expressetl in the torto relationships
The diagranis in Fig 9.17 t'urther explaitt tIme relationships
ttttaosg the sanou, qaaniitic.
Figure 9.13 of posver. As shown in Fig. 9. t3a, mIte pllasar be
=
. ~ JQ 932 current cats split into two components: one

Diagram for illustrating that is in phase svith ¼

,,,,,arsd one that is 90° oat of phase wills V
Equations (9.331 and (9.34)
.

relationships illustrate that the phase coniponetit produces the real

where
power is
posver,.d the 90° component, called
t, I,,,, eos(tl, 0,) 9.13
P -

Re(S)
us

rn
1w

As shown in Eq. 19.31). the magnitude power is what ste hate called 1h:
I ictor angle. 'rin, um is, on -o, e
poster is siouph' th' poster nI -'

eipfmare'umt pouter, and the pltase angle for complex

'Q (Z)
Cttmplex power. like apparent i itsver. is tileasu edis solt-amperex.
real power is measured its 050 it °
r0i Na I i
rutrs

tact have thc tattle dinteusioits. 5,

svaitx. and to distinguish Q trots the oilier qsatstittcs. svhiclt in °"
Re
it is measured in volt-amperes reactive. or sac, o, s p 1215R. (Z)
and (9.341 detail for ihrce
Nuns let's examine the expressions in Eqs. (9.331 us more our

haste ctrcuit eletuenis: R. L. C. For resistor, 9, 11 =

I) eits(O ti,) I. an Ia) Ib) (e)
-

.t
-
 474 CHAPTER 9 STEADY.STATE POWER ANALYSIS
SECTION 9,6 COraPLEX pOWER 473

the quadrature componenl, produces the reactive quadrature power. In addition. Eqs. the load
or Therefore, at

(9.33) and (9.34) indicate that

S =
25,000 =
25,000//7° 20,000 + jlS,000 VA

tan(8, -

9.35 Since S =
VLI
125,000 L2°
which relates the pi' angle to P and Q in what is called the poem iriaugk'.
The relationships antong S. F, and Q can be espressed via the diagrants showit in =
1 13.64/-36.87° A rms
Ftgs. 9.13b at,dc. In Fig. 9.13b we note the following conditions. If Q is positive, the load is
inductive, the power factor is lagging, and the complex number S lies in the first quadrant. If The complex power losses in the line are

Q is negative, the load is capacitive, the power factor is leading, and the complex numberS
s,,, =

lias in tl,c fourth qundrant. tfQ is zero, the toad is resistive, the power factor is unity, and the
complex number S lies along tite positive real axis. Figure 9. 13c illustrates the relationships
=
(113.64)2(0.09 +
jO.3)
expressed by Eqs. (9.35) to (9371 for an inductive load. (162.26 + j3874.2 I VA
In Chapter 1, we introduced Tellegen's theorem, which states that the sum ai the powers
absorbed by all eletnents 'us an electrical network is zero. Based on this theorem, we can also As stated earlier, cotnpleu power is conserved, attd, therefote. the consplex power at the

state that complex power is conserved in an ac network-the total complex power delivered to generator is
S S. ~
auy number of individual loads is equal to lhe sum of the complex powers delivered to the
loads, regardless of how loads are interconnected. =
21,162.26 t- j18.874.2 I
28,356.25VA
Prob1emSoivinQ' STRATEGY
=

Hence, lhe generator voltage is

'I u(t) and 1(1) known and wewish to find Pgiven impedance z, =
R,+ ix: Determining P or S
Ss!
are an
28,356.25
lwo.hiablu approaches axe na follows:
I,. 113.64
,

Step i. Determina V and land that, calculate =

249.53 V nus

P V,,,.,1,cÕsO or P =
Vmalnocos(Oa -

o,) and lhe generator power factor is

Step 2. Use Ito c$culaie the real part'of 5; that is, cos(41.73°) 0.75 lagging
p R,(S)' (5R
We could have solved Ibis problem using KVL. For example, we calculated the load
The latter method may be easier to calculate thnis the former. 1{owever, if tlte imaginary current as

[1h
•

II t 113.64 /,7° A
parto'f the impedance, K, is not zero, then =
ruts

•
. .' V2 -
i. Use thegioen P,.cnso, Hence, tlte voltage drop in the transmission line is
P ~ -

and V, nos to obtain

R
and I, based on Eqs. =
(113.64 /-36.87°)(0.09 + jo.3)
which. 16 mistake. Furthednore, the P and Q portions of S are directly related
a common (9.331 and (y.29L
and provide a conbertienl way in'whiclt'to relate power, current, and -impedance.
rms
1oZ/, respectinely.
That
.
o.
Usei5 and Z5,, to nbta,n
Therefore, the seocralor voltage is
Q San, using Eq. 89.35). -

tanfi a. UseS5
•
'

V,.
=
220
-'.

lar =
+
P s. V5 SJi yields V5 and
s-= rz O,,. Since5, Vrt5,,,and
=

24953/ V rias

O, Is the phase at
pf cns(U, e,).
= -

Hence, the generator voltage is 249.53 V rots. Its addition,

8,. O, =
4.86° (-36.87°) 41.73°
-
-
=

The following example illustrates the nsefulness of S.

and therefore.

pf =
cos(41.73°) =
0.75 lagging
A load operates ar 20 trW. 0.8 pf lagging. The load voltage is 220/0° V rots at 60 Hz. The EXAMPLE 9.11
factor Figure 9.14 0.09 l jo.3 ti
impedance of the line is 0.09 + j03 £1. We wish to determine the voltage and power "°°"
at the input to the line. Exnmplu circuit for
________________

1L \
analysis.
The circuit diagram forthis problem is shown in Fig. 9.14. As illustrated in Fig. 9.13.
SOLUTION
paWer
20kW 1"
32O,V
.

, rn's
.

0.8 ptlagg,sg
//
í'
S=-=-- =
25000VA
cosO pf 0.8 _______________________
 SECTION
476 CHAPTER 9 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYSIS
9.0 COMPLEX POWER 475

Industrial plants that require large amounts of power have a wide variety of loath. However.
T\vo networks A and B are connected by two conduclors
9 7 by nature the loads normally have a lagging power factor. In view of the results obtained in
having a net impedance of EXAMPLE 9.1 2
Power Factor Example 9.10, we are naturally led to ask whether there is any coavenient technique [or rats
-

Z =
0 + jl 13, as shown in Fig. 9.15. The voltagee at the terminals of the networks are
V log the power factor of a load. Since a typical load may be a bank of induction motors or
120 V rins and V0 =
I 20 V riria. We wish to determine the average
power Correction other expensive machinery, the technique for raising the p1 shonld be an ecoitomical one to
flow berwOen lhe networks and
identify which is the source and which is the load.
_________________________

______________________
be feasible.
To answer the question ave pose, consider the diagram in Fig. 9.l6. A typical industrial
As shown in Fig. 9.15, SOLUTION
load svith tagging pf is supplied by an electrical source. Also shown is lhe power triangle
a

-.
Vs_S,0 for the load. The load pf is cos(O,). If we want to improve the power factor, we need to
Z reduce lhe angle shown on the power triangle in Fig. 9.16. Finns Eq. (9.38) we know that the
tangent of this angle is equal to the ratio of Q toP. Wg could decrease lhe angle by mercas
l20/Q
-

l20L
-

ing P. This is not an economically attractive solution because oar increased power con -

JI sumplion ,vould increase the monthly bill from the electric utility.
62.12/ A coso

Figure 9.16 1L »
The power delivered by network A is ______________

Diagram for power

7
=

I't',IIIk05(9, -

factor cnrrectinn. VL
(12Q)(62.l2)cos(3O -

t5) \Ou O

7200.4W
_

1'old
The power absorbed by neiwork B is
The other option we hays to reduce this angle is to decrease Q. I-low can we decrease QI
P8 =
V01111 cos(8v, o) Recall from a previous section that a capacitor is a source of reactive power and does not
-

absorb real power Suppose ave connect a capacitor in parallel with our industrial load as
(l20)(62.12) cos(0° -

l5)
shown in Fig. 9.17. The corresponding posver triangles for this diagram tire also shown in Fig.
=
7200.4 W 9.17. Let's deline
If the power flow had actually been from network B to network A. the resultant signs os
P1 jQ0 ISwaI Ltís and S»» JQ.. jS,,,)
= -
= = -

P and P8 would have been negative. Then

_____
f-Figure9.15
Netwark used in Equation (9.37) can be used to find the required value of C in order to achieve the new

Example g.sz. specified power factor, as illustrated ia Fig. 9.17. Hence, we can obtain
particalar power a

factor for the total load (indntrial load and capacitor) simply by judiciously selecting a
capacitor and placing it in parallel with the original load. In general, we avant the poorer fac -

tar to be large, awl therefore the posver factor

angle must be sniall (i.e.. lhe larger the desired
power factor, lhe susulter the angle (o»
-

figure 9.17 ..3

Ifalsil2
_L
Power factur correction --

diagram including capacitor.

C.-1..
V

E9.ai An industrial load requires 40 kW at 0.84 pf lagging. The loud voltage is ANSWERt

Oj,0OI1
220.V.rmv at 60Hz. The transmission-line Impedance is 0.1 + j0.25 th. Determine the e5,, =
4.685 kW; Qi. =
Qold
real and reactive power losses in the line and the real and reactive power required at the input Q5,, 11.713 kvari
to the transmission line. P =
44.685 trW;
Q =
37.55 kvar.
-

___________
tnew
voltage at the toad is ANSWERt
E9.aa A load requires 60 kW at 0.85 pf lagging. The 60-Hz tine 1'L =
"old
220,y ruts. If the transmission-line impedance is 0.12 + j0.18 13, determine the line Vm 284.6f V russ:
6O 5T
=

voltage and power factor at the input. pf1, 0.792 lagging.

 SECTION 9.7 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION 477 478 CHAPTER 0 sTEAOY.STATE POWER ANALYSIS

EXAMPLE 9.14 Plastic kayaks are rnaoulactured using a process called rotonnoldiug, which is diagrausnsed
Bveiy month electrical energy provider sends Usa bill for the amount of electrical
our
EXAMPLE 9.13
in Fig. 9.19. Molten plastic is injected into a mold, which is thea spun on the long axis of
energy that wehave consumed. The rate is often expressed in per kWh and consists of at
the kayak until the plastic cools, resulting in a hollow one-piece craft. Suppose that the
least two components: (1) the demand charge, which covers the cost of lines, poles, trans-
induction motors used to spin the molds consume 50 kW at a pf of 0.8 lagging from a
formers, and so (2) the energy charge, which covers the cost to produce electric
on, and
220 Lp.V rins. 60 -Hz line. We wish to raise the pf to 0.95 lagging by plscing a batik of
energy at power plants. The energy charge is the subject of the deregulation of the electric
capacitors in parallel with the toad.
utility industry where you, an a customer, choose your energy provider.
It is common tbr an industrial ticility operating ar a poor power thctor to be charged more by Figure 9.19 3 .
'n
the electric utility providing electrical service. Let's suppose that our industrial facility operates
.

Induction
Rotarnolding Kayak mold
at 277 V rms and requires 500 kW at a power factor of 0.75 lagging. Assume an energy charge
manufacluring process.
of 2d per kVi'h and a demand charge of $3.50 per kW per mouth if the power factor is between
.. ... -.

0.9 lagging and unity and S5 per ICVA per month if the power factor is less than 0.9 lagging.
The monthly energy charge is 500 )< 24 x 30 )< $0.02 $7,200. Let's calculate the
=

inontlsty demand charge with she 0.75 lagging power factor. The complex power absorbed SOLUTION The circuit diagram for this problem is shown ia Fig. 9.20. P =
50 kW and since
by the industrial facility is cos 0.8 =
35370 0a1d 35370 Therefore,

Sd =
9/cos(0.75) =
666,67L4 500 + j441 kVA Q,st ',nd tan (50)(l0)(0.75) =
37.5 kvar
Hence,
The monthly demand charge is 666.67 x $5 $3,333.35. The total bill from the energy
=

S01 1,nd + jQ0t 50.000 + j37,500

provider is $7,200 4. $3,333.35 $10,533.35 per month.
=

and
Let's consider installing a capacitor bank, as shown ia Fig. 9.18, to correct the poaver fac-
SW, O ~ JQ
=

tor and reduce our dnsand charge. The demand charge is such that we only need to correct

the power factor to 0.9 lagging. The monthly demand charge will be the same whether the Since the required power factor is 0.95,
power factor is corrected to 0.9 or unity. The complex power absorbed by the industrial facil- =
cos'(pl,,) =
c05' (0.95)
ity and capacitor bank will be
18.190
8,,, fcos'(0.9) =
555.6/8 500 4. j242.2 kVA Then

The
=
P0Idran0,,..
monthly demand charge for our industrial facility with the capacitor bank is
500 X $3.50 $1,750 per month. The average power absorbed by our capacitor bank is
= =
50,000 tan( 18.190)
negligible compared to the average power absorbed by the industrial facility, so our month- 16,430 var
ly energy charge retnainit $7,200 per month. With the capacitor bank installed, the total hill
from the energy provider is $7,200 ± $1,750 Heace
$8,950 per month. =

How many kvars of capacitance do we need to correct the power factor to 0.9 lagging? Q,
-

Q, =
-saC V2

S,,,,,
-
S S, (500 +
j242.2)
-

(500 +
j441) =
-j198.8 kvar 15,430- 37,500 =
-c'sCV2rmo
Let's assume that it costs $100 per kvar to install she capacitor bank as the industrial
Solving the equation for C yields
facility for an installation cost of $19,880. How long will it take lo recover the cost of 21,070
installing the capacilor bank? The difference in the monthly demand charge without the
-
-

bank and with the bank is $3,333.35 $1,750 $1,583.35. Oividing (his value into the cost
- (377)(220)
0f installing the bank yields $ 19,880/$t,583.35 12.56 months.
=
1155p.F
r
By using capacitor of this parallel with the industrial load, we create, from
magnitude in
-

ii. -
Figure 9.a8 a

A bank of capacitors.
the utility's perspective, a load pf of 0.95 lagging. However, the parameters of the actual
load remain unchanged. Under these conditions, the current supplied by the utility to the
(Cunrtesy of leremy trelms,
kayak manufacturer is less and therefore they can use smaller conductors for
the same
ralquin Electric Cooperative, will be less since these
amount of power. Or, if the conductor size is fixed, the line losses
Inc.)
losses are a function of the square of the current.

Figure 9.20 ..3. IT

Example circuit for pnwer ~ i.
factor carrection.

v rms C
I .1

SECTION 9.8 SINGE -PkASE THREE -WIRE cincutis 479 480 CHAPTER 0 STEADY-STATE POWER ANALYStS

Problern.SoIvrngsrRATEGv Figure 925 .4

Single-phase three -wire
ti
1,,,.,
A

from P and O,,or lhe equivalent Power Factor system. J,,

,fromthedesiredpÇ,;.
-

Correction
(V
I I I
=
-1,
5,

tearnmgA 55 ES SM ENT
la) (b) (cl
E943 Compute the value of the capacitor necessary to change the power factor in Learning ANSWEttt C =
773 i.E
AssesuwentE9l0 to 0.05 lagging.

Tlte
the
single-phase titree-wite ac circuit shown in Fig. 9.21 is an iotportattl topic because it iS
typical ac power network found in households. ldote that the voltage sources are equal:
9 8
that is, Vi,, V5 V. TInas, the magnitudes are equal and the phases are equal (single
=
Single -Phase
phase). The line -tn -line voltage V 2\,,, 2V,,,, 2V. Within a household, lights and Three -Wire
= = =

stnall appliances are connected Irons one line to ttetttral ti, and large appliances such as hot
Circuits
water healers and air conditioners are connected line to line. Lights operate ai about

120V rms and approximately 240V ruts.

large appliattces operate at

Let us now attach two identical loads to the single-phase three-wire voltage system using
perfect condtictors as shown in Fig. 9.21h. From the ligure we note that (d) (e)

currents in Fig. correspond directly to those in Fig. 9.2 Id. If we add the two plurtsor
9.2 Ic
asd currents in each branch, we find that the neutral current is again zero. A neutral currettt of
zero is a direct result of the symmetrical nature of lhe network. If either the lice impedances
v0
7
or the load inspednuces Z, are unequal, the neutral current will be nonzero. We svilt
make direct use of these concepts svhen we study three-phase networks in Chapter II.
KCL at point N is

i,,,. =
-(ifl,, +

(V v'
1,2, Zr, EXAMPLE 9.1 5 A three -wire single-phase household circuit is shown in Fig. 922a. Use of the lights, stereo,

=0
and range for a 24 -hour period is demonstrated in Fig. 9.22h. Let us calculate the energy use
over lhe 24 hours in kilowatt-hours. Assuming that this represents n typical day and that our

Ntste that there is no carrent in the neutral wire, and therefore it could be removed with- utility rale it $0.08/kWh, tetas also estimate the power bill fora 30 -day mouth.
out affecting the rentaiuder of the systens that is, all lhe voltages and currenls would be
SOLUTION Applying oedal atnalysis to Fig. 9.22a yields
uttchanged. One is naturally led to wonder just how far the situplicity exhtbited by this
systenn will extend, For example, what would happen if each line had a line impedance, lei =
+ 'e
if the neutral conductor had att impedance astociated with it. and if there were a load tted
questions, consider the circuit in Fig. 9.2 Ic. Although
=
-Is to
-

frons line to line? To explore these

we could examine this circuit using many of the techniques we have employed in previ- =
Ix -

li.
ous chapters, the symmetry of the network suggests that perhaps superposition may lead
The current magnitudes for each load can he found from the corresponding power levels
us to some conclusions uvithout having to ressrt to a brute -force assattlt. Employing super-
as follows.
position, we consider the two circaits ut Figs. 9.21d and e. Tite currents its Fig. 9.21d are
labeledarbilrarily. Becauseofthesytnmetricalrelationshipbetween Figs.9.21dande,the
I

SECTION 9.0 SINGLE-PHASE THREE -WIRE CIRCUITS 481

rins
(E)
I
j __L.
1N
••

•
tights !L I 1J
Stereo
off [1

(7
_
I205V rins
If
________

bt- 12AM2t661O 24681012

168 B 12PM.

(a) (b)

P 120 Figure 9.22

= - -
=
1 A rins
V, 120 Household three -wire
network and appliance
P 24
= - = - =
li2Arms usage.
t 120

P0 7200
'e 30 A rins
cll

The Energy used is simply the integral of the power delivered by the two sources over the
24 -hour period. Since the voltage magnitudes are constants, we can express the energy
delivered by the sources as

E==V=flaid(
-48 di

The integrals of I and ! can be determined graphically frota Fig. 9.22h

f45d=410+ lSi 135

f 4 di 0t ± 4( =
121.6

Therefore, the daily energy for each source and the total energy is

=
16.2kWh

E,,5 14.6 kWh

=
30.llkWh

Over a 30 -day month, a $0.08/kwh Utility rate results in a power bill of

cost (30.8)(30)(o.08) $73.92

The enemy consumption is typically measured by meters. of the form shown in Fig. 9.23
which are a familiar sight on the outside of our bornes.