PHS Based Online Vehicle Tracking and Locking System

PROJECT REPORT
ON
“PHS BASED ONLINE VEHICLE

TRACKING AND LOCKING SYSTEM”
A PROJECT REPORT ON
“PHS BASED ONLINE VEHICLE TRACKING AND LOCKING
SYSTEM”
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
For the award of the degree
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
____________ ( _______ )
____________ ( _______ )
____________ ( _______ )
____________ ( _______ )
DEPARTMENT OF ______________ ENGINEERING
________ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled “PHS BASED

ONLINE VEHICLE TRACKING AND LOCKING SYSTEM” is the
work done by
_________________________________________________________
submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of ‘BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING (B.E)’ in ____________________________
Engineering from ___________ College of Engineering affiliated to
_________ University, Bangalore.
___________________ _____________
(Head of the department, ECE/EEE) (Assistant Professor)
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of

any task would be incomplete without the mentioning of the people whose
constant guidance and encouragement made it possible. We take pleasure in
presenting before you, our project, which is result of studied blend of both
research and knowledge.
We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

___________, Department of ECE/EEE, our project guide, for his constant
support, encouragement and guidance. We are grateful for his cooperation
and his valuable suggestions.
DECLARATION
We, the undersigned, declare that the project entitled ‘PHS BASED
ONLINE VEHICLE TRACKING AND LOCKING SYSTEM’, being
submitted in partial fulfilment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering
Degree in Electronics and Communication Engineering, affiliated to
__________ University, is the work carried out by us.
___________ ___________ __________
___________ ___________ __________
6
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Abstract
Chapter 2: Introduction
Chapter 3: Motivation
Chapter 4: Block Diagram
Chapter 5: Block Diagram Explanation
Chapter 6: Methodology
Chapter 7: Circuit Diagram & Explanation
Chapter 8: Applications & Future Enhancement
8.1: Applications
8.2: Future Enhancement
Chapter 9: Advantages & Disadvantages
9.1: Advantages
9.2: Disadvantages
Chapter 10: Result/Conclusion
Chapter 11: General Components
Chapter 12: PCB Designing & Soldering Techniques
12.1: PCB Designing
12.2: Soldering Techniques
Chapter 13: References
7
Chapter 1:
ABSTRACT
This system presents the detailed description about “Personal Handy System” (PHS) which is the
alternative technology for Global Positioning System (GPS).PHS is a effective system for network
system of vehicle tracking & locking facility from a remote end like control room or even vehicle
owner’s mobile. The operator can see the vehicle’s current location in real time mode. Here the
communication network is comparable to the cellular network in operation. In this paper prototypes
are made to illustrate the tracking and locking of vehicle.
8
Chapter 2:
INTRODUCTION
The Global Positioning System is used to track the vehicles using Low Earth Orbit Satellites
continuously in present scenario. But if the vehicle moves beyond the network area, it will not be
possible to track the vehicle using GPS, to overcome this problem personal handy system is provided
which works even if the vehicle is in not reachable area. The Personal Handy System (PHS) service
was launched first in 1995 to respond to the diversified demand of mobile communication in Japan.
In January 2000, PHS network services with Kyocera cell stations were started in China. Since then,
subscribers have been steadily increasing in China and Impressive development centering on
Southeast Asia is also seen to be growing. Kyocera has been the major supplier of PHS equipment in
Japan as well as in China and Southeast Asian market.
MAIN FEATURES OF THE PROJECT:

1. Effective in implementation.
2. Low power consumption, and compact size,
3. High reliability, due to the usage of power semiconductor devices,
As in our project we are using PHS technology using this technology it is possible to track the
vehicle and lock the vehicle in not reachable area also.
PHS TECHNOLOGY
PHS (personal handy system) this system acts like an cordless phone in home, and mobile phone out
side the home and satellite phone once it goes out of reach where GSM can not track at that time.
This system is recently launched in Japan, china, and Taiwan.
PHS comes under 3.9 G
It has very vast application.
9
PHS is, essentially, a cordless telephone like DECT, with the capability to handover from one cell to
another. PHS cells are small, with transmission power of base station a maximum of 500 mW and
range typically measures in tens or at most hundreds of meters (some can range up to about 2
kilometers in line-of-sight), as opposed to the multi-kilometer ranges of GSM. This makes PHS
suitable for dense urban areas, but impractical for rural areas, and the small cell size also makes it
difficult if not impossible to make calls from rapidly moving TRANSMISSION LINEs.
PHS uses TDMA/TDD for its radio channel access method, and 32 kbit/s ADPCM for its voice
codec. Modern PHS phone can also support many value-added services such as high speed wireless
data / Internet connection (64 kbit/s and higher), WWW access, e-mailing, text messaging and even
color image transfer.
PHS technology is also a popular option for providing a wireless local loop, where it is used to bridge
the "last mile" gap between the POTS network and the subscriber's home. Actually, it was developed
under the concept that it makes up a wireless front-end of ISDN network. So a base station of PHS
has a compatibility with, and is often connected directly to ISDN telephone exchange equipments
(aka digital switch).
As for its low-price base station, micro-cellular system and 'Dynamic Cell Assign' system, PHS can
afford more number-of-digits frequency use efficiency with lower cost (throughput per area basis),
compared with typical 3G cellular telephone systems. It makes possible the flat-rate wireless service
such as AIR-EDGE all over Japan.
The speed of AIR-EDGE data connection is accelerated by combining lines, each of which basically
is 32 kbit/s. AIR-EDGE 1x or first version introduced in 2001 provide only 32 kbit/s service. In 2002,
128 kbit/s service (AIR-EDGE 4x) started. In 2005, 256 kbit/s (AIR-EDGE 8x) service started.
In 2006, the speed of each line was also up-graded to 1.6 times with the introduction of "W-OAM"
technology. The speed of AIR-EDGE 8x is up to 402 kbit/s with the latest "W-OAM" capable
instrument.
In April 2007, "W-OAM typeG" was introduced allowing data speeds of 512 kbit/s for AIR-EDGE
8x users. Furthermore, the "W-OAM typeG" AIR-EDGE 8x service is planned to be upgraded to a
maximum throughput of 800 kbit/s, when the upgrading for access points (mainly switching lines
from ISDN to fiber optic) in its system are completed. And it may exceed the speeds of popular
W-CDMA 3G service like NTT DoCoMo's FOMA in Japan.
10
Chapter 3
MOTIVATION
The aim of the proposed project is by using PHS technology it is possible to track the vehicle and
lock the vehicle in not reachable area also.
11
CHAPTER 4: BLOCK DIAGRAM:
VHF TX VHF TX
VHF TX
VHF TX 1
IR RX VHF
IR RX IR RX RX 1
PHS SATLLITE
LOCATION LOCATION
A
B
+5V
+12V
230V
TRANSFORME RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR GND

R
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS: Microcontroller, LCD, Relay Driver, Relays, Resistors, Capacitors, LEDs, Crystal, Diodes, Transformer, Voltage
Regulator, Push Button.
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS:Keil compiler uVision 3, Language: Embedded C or Assembly, WLPRO Programmer
INTERFACING
UNIT
MOBILE TX
DC MOTOR
DECODER
D
D 16
X2
LC
LC
16
RF RX DRIVER
MICROCONTROLLER DISPLAY
13
CHAPTER 5:
BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
 Power supply unit
This section needs two voltages viz., +12 V & +5 V, as working voltages. Hence specially
designed power supply is constructed to get regulated power supplies.
 RF transmitter
RF transmitters are electronic devices that create continuously varying electric current,
encode sine waves, and broadcast radio waves. RF transmitters use oscillators to create
sine waves, the simplest and smoothest form of continuously varying waves, which
contain information such as audio and video. Modulators encode these sign wives and
antennas broadcast them as radio signals. There are several ways to encode or modulate
this information, including amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM).
Radio techniques limit localized interference and noise.
 RF receiver
RF receivers are electronic devices that separate radio signals from one another and
convert specific signals into audio, video, or data formats. RF receivers use an antenna to
receive transmitted radio signals and a tuner to separate a specific signal from all of the
other signals that the antenna receives. Detectors or demodulators then extract
information that was encoded before transmission. There are several ways to decode or
modulate this information, including amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM). Radio techniques limit localized interference and noise.
 Microcontroller:
The Atmel AT89 series is an Intel 8051-compatible family of 8

bit microcontrollers (µCs) manufactured by the Atmel Corporation. Based on the Intel
8051 core, the AT89 series remains very popular as general purpose microcontrollers, due
to their industry standard instruction set, and low unit cost. This allows a great amount of
legacy code to be reused without modification in new applications. While considerably
less powerful than the newer AT90 series of AVR RISC microcontrollers, new product
development has continued with the AT89 series for the aforementioned advantages.
 IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER:
Infrared (IR) transmitters and receivers are present in many different devices, though they
are most commonly found in consumer electronics. The way this technology works is that
one component flashes an infrared light in a particular pattern, which another component
can pick up and translate into an instruction. These transmitters and receivers are found in
remote controls and all different types of devices, such as televisions and DVD players.
Peripheral devices that include this technology can also allow a computer to control
various other consumer electronics. Since infrared remotes are limited to line of sight
operation,
 Buffers
Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital signal (i.e. a logic 1 input results
in a logic 1 output whereas logic 0 input results in a logic 0 output). Buffers are normally
used to provide extra current drive at the output but can also be used to regularize the
logic present at an interface
 Drivers
This section is used to drive the relay where the output is complement of input which is
applied to the drive but current will be amplified
 Relays
It is a electromagnetic device which is used to drive the load connected across the relay
and the o/p of relay can be connected to controller or load for further processing.
 Load:
The devices will be turned ON/OFF based on the key pressed in a keypad.
CHAPTER 6:
METHODOLOGY
15
The method for implementation of this system is provided in this section is the
general block diagram of system. Tracking System Overview
1. There are three modules Area A, Area B, PHS Area. 2. All the three modules should
be connected to the socket at a distance of approximately 6 to 7 ft.
3. The Host controller unit should be placed in the centre of all the three areas and
should be connected to the socket.
4. The mobile should be connected to the jack provided on the vehicle and should be
put on auto receiver mode.
5. The call should be made from other mobile to the mobile which is attached to the
vehicle, it will be automatically received at it is on autoreceive mode. 6. The vehicle
should be start by pressing key „1‟ of mobile and thus the vehicle should run across
the various areas i.e. modules.
7. As soon as the vehicle reaches Area A, the IR/ID transmitted by vehicle unit is
received by IR receiver of Area A. The particular code for channel is then sent by VHF
transmitter to Host controller, RF/VHF signal is received by receiver and then
interfaced to microcontroller by a set of buffer circuit, driver stage, and relay switching
network and to the parallel port.
8. The LCD present on LCD and Microcontroller stage should display the name of
area i.e. Area A, and thus the user will come to know that vehicle is in Area A.
9. The vehicle should be move near area B, as soon as it reaches Area B, the message
displayed on the LCD will be Area B.
10. The PHS area needs satellite to increase the frequency range so the satellite module
should also be connected to the socket.
11. The vehicle should be move in PHS Area now the message and the message
displayed on LCD should be PHS Area. 12. The vehicle can now be stop by pressing
key „2‟
Locking :
Locking System The remote locking system stops the vehicle when it is stolen using owner’s mobile
phone. This is achieved using DTMF decoder technique. For the demonstration of locking system
one mobile is placed on vehicle which is kept on auto receive mode. When a call is received from the
16
mobile placed remotely digit „1‟ is used to move the vehicle and digit „2‟ stops the vehicle. In
DTMF decoding each digit is assigned two frequencies that is dual tone. One of the frequencies is
from higher band while other is a low frequency. When one is pressed the frequencies related to digit
1 are transmitted by owner’s mobile and received by mobile placed on vehicle. This digit is decoded
by DTMF decoder IC. Output of this IC is given to the relay. The received digit 1 activates the relay
and 0 deactivates the same. When the relay is active is gives 9V to the DC motor to run while the
deactivation of relay gives 0V which stops the motor
CHAPTER 7:
CIRCIUT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The circuit needs two different voltages, +5V & +12V, to work. These dual voltages are
supplied by this specially designed power supply.
The power supply, unsung hero of every electronic circuit, plays very important role in
smooth running of the connected circuit. The main object of this ‘power supply’ is, as the
name itself implies, to deliver the required amount of stabilized and pure power to the
circuit. Every typical power supply contains the following sections:
1. Step-down Transformer: The conventional supply, which is generally available to the
user, is 230V AC. It is necessary to step down the mains supply to the desired level. This
is achieved by using suitably rated step-down transformer. While designing the power
supply, it is necessary to go for little higher rating transformer than the required one. The
17
reason for this is, for proper working of the regulator IC (say KIA 7805) it needs at least
2.5V more than the expected output voltage
2. Rectifier stage: Then the step-downed Alternating Current is converted into Direct
Current. This rectification is achieved by using passive components such as diodes. If the
power supply is designed for low voltage/current drawing loads/circuits (say +5V), it is
sufficient to employ full-wave rectifier with centre-tap transformer as a power source.
While choosing the diodes the PIV rating is taken into consideration.
3. Filter stage: But this rectified output contains some percentage of superimposed a.c.
ripples. So to filter these a.c. components filter stage is built around the rectifier stage.
The cheap, reliable, simple and effective filtering for low current drawing loads (say upto
50 mA) is done by using shunt capacitors. This electrolytic capacitor has polarities, take
care while connecting the circuit.
4. Voltage Regulation: The filtered d.c. output is not stable. It varies in accordance with
the fluctuations in mains supply or varying load current. This variation of load current is
observed due to voltage drop in transformer windings, rectifier and filter circuit. These
variations in d.c. output voltage may cause inaccurate or erratic operation or even
malfunctioning of many electronic circuits. For example, the circuit boards which are
implanted by CMOS or TTL ICs.
KIA 78xx
Series
1 2 3
The stabilization of d.c. output is achieved by using the three terminal voltage regulator
IC. This regulator IC comes in two flavors: 78xx for positive voltage output and 79xx for
negative voltage output. For example 7805 gives +5V output and 7905 gives -5V
stabilized output. These regulator ICs have in-built short-circuit protection and auto-
18
thermal cutout provisions. If the load current is very high the IC needs ‘heat sink’ to
dissipate the internally generated power.
Circuit Description: A d.c. power supply which maintains the output voltage constant
irrespective of a.c. mains fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated d.c. power
supply. It is also referred as full-wave regulated power supply as it uses four diodes in
bridge fashion with the transformer. This laboratory power supply offers excellent line
and load regulation and output voltages of +5V & +12 V at output currents up to one
amp.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF +5V & +12V FULL WAVE REGULATED POWER
SUPPLY
IC1 IC1 +12V

7812 780
D 555
11 5 9V
+5V
230AC
C1 C2 C
C4
3
D
21
X
1
Parts List:
SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 7812 Regulator IC 1
IC2 7805 Regulator IC 1
D1& D2 1N4007 Rectifier Diodes 2
CAPACITORS
C1 1000 µf/25V Electrolytic 1
C2 to C4 0.1µF Ceramic Disc type 3
MISCELLANEOUS
X1 230V AC Pri,14-0-14 1Amp Sec 1
19
Transformer
1. Step-down Transformer: The transformer rating is 230V AC at Primary and 12-0-12V,

1Ampers across secondary winding. This transformer has a capability to deliver a current
of 1Ampere, which is more than enough to drive any electronic circuit or varying load.
The 12VAC appearing across the secondary is the RMS value of the waveform and the
peak value would be 12 x 1.414 = 16.8 volts. This value limits our choice of rectifier
diode as 1N4007, which is having PIV rating more than 16Volts.
2. Rectifier Stage: The two diodes D1 & D2 are connected across the secondary winding
of the transformer as a full-wave rectifier. During the positive half-cycle of secondary
voltage, the end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This
makes the diode D1 forward biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore diode D1
conducts while diode D2 does not. During the negative half-cycle, end A of the secondary
winding becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore diode D2 conducts while diode
D1 does not. Note that current across the centre tap terminal is in the same direction for
both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. Therefore, pulsating d.c. is obtained at point ‘C’
with respect to Ground.
3. Filter Stage: Here Capacitor C1 is used for filtering purpose and connected across the
rectifier output. It filters the a.c. components present in the rectified d.c. and gives steady
d.c. voltage. As the rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies
current to the load. When capacitor is charged to the peak value of the rectifier voltage,
rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As the next voltage peak immediately recharges the
capacitor, the discharge period is of very small duration. Due to this continuous charge-
discharge-recharge cycle very little ripple is observed in the filtered output. Moreover,
output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier output
voltage. This phenomenon is also explained in other form as: the shunt capacitor offers a
low reactance path to the a.c. components of current and open circuit to d.c. component.
During positive half cycle the capacitor stores energy in the form of electrostatic field.
During negative half cycle, the filter capacitor releases stored energy to the load.
4. Voltage Regulation Stage: Across the point ‘D’ and Ground there is rectified and
filtered d.c. In the present circuit KIA 7812 three terminal voltage regulator IC is used to
get +12V and KIA 7805 voltage regulator IC is used to get +5V regulated d.c. output. In
the three terminals, pin 1 is input i.e., rectified & filtered d.c. is connected to this pin. Pin
2 is common pin and is grounded. The pin 3 gives the stabilized d.c. output to the load.
The circuit shows two more decoupling capacitors C2 & C3, which provides ground path
20
to the high frequency noise signals. Across the point ‘E’ and ‘F’ with respect to ground
+5V & +12V stabilized or regulated d.c output is measured, which can be connected to
the required circuit.
Note: While connecting the diodes and electrolytic capacitors the polarities must be taken
into consideration. The transformer’s primary winding deals with 230V mains, care
should be taken with it.
 BUFFER&DRIVER
When the user programs the schedule for the automation using GUI [Graphical User
Interface] software, it actually sends 5-bit control signals to the circuit. The present
circuit provides interfacing with the Microcontroller and the controlling circuitry. This
circuit takes the 5-bit control signal, isolates the CONTROLLER from this circuitry,
boosts control signals for required level and finally fed to the driver section to actuate
relay. These five relays in turn sends RC5 coded commands with respect to their relay
position.
First the components used in this Module are discussed and then the actual circuit is
described in detail.
HEX BUFFER / CONVERTER [NON-INVERTER] IC 4050: Buffers does not affect the
logical state of a digital signal (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic 1 output where as logic
0 input results into logic 0 output). Buffers are normally used to provide extra current
drive at the output, but can also be used to regularise the logic present at an interface. And
Inverters are used to complement the logical state (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic 0
output and vice versa). Also Inverters are used to provide extra current drive and, like
buffers, are used in interfacing applications. This 16-pin DIL packaged IC 4050 acts as
Buffer as-well-as a Converter. The input signals may be of 2.5 to 5V digital TTL
compatible or DC analogue the IC gives 5V constant signal output. The IC acts as buffer
and provides isolation to the main circuit from varying input signals. The working
voltage of IC is 4 to 16 Volts and propagation delay is 30 nanoseconds. It consumes 0.01
mill Watt power with noise immunity of 3.7 V and toggle speed of 3 Megahertz.
21
1 IC 4050 16
Vcc
2 15
3 14
4 13
5 12
6 11
7 10
8 Vss 9
ULN 2003: Since the digital outputs of the some circuits cannot sink much current, they
are not capable of driving relays directly. So, high-voltage high-current Darlington arrays
are designed for interfacing low-level logic circuitry and multiple peripheral power loads.
The series ULN2000A/L ICs drive seven relays with continuous load current ratings to
600mA for each input. At an appropriate duty cycle depending on ambient temperature
and number of drivers turned ON simultaneously, typical power loads totalling over
260W [400mA x 7, 95V] can be controlled. Typical loads include relays, solenoids,
stepping motors, magnetic print hammers, multiplexed LED and incandescent displays,
and heaters. These Darlington arrays are furnished in 16-pin dual in-line plastic packages
(suffix A) and 16-lead surface-mountable SOICs (suffix L). All devices are pinned with
outputs opposite inputs to facilitate ease of circuit board layout.
The input of ULN 2003 is TTL-compatible open-collector outputs. As each of these

outputs can sink a maximum collector current of 500 mA, miniature Controller relays can
be easily driven. No additional free-wheeling clamp diode is required to be connected
across the relay since each of the outputs has inbuilt free-wheeling diodes. The Series
ULN20x4A/L features series input resistors for operation directly from 6 to 15V CMOS
or PMOS logic outputs.
1N4148 signal diode: Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in
circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA. General purpose
22
signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop
of 0.7V.
IC ULN 2003
1 16
2 15
3 14
4 13
5 12
6 11
7 10
8 9 Vcc
23
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF BUFFER & DRIVER
+12 V
Output Output Output Output Output
R6-R10
IC2
D6-D10
+5V IC1 9
1 16 N/C N/C N/C N/C N/C

1
3 2 15
2
5 4 3 14 RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RL5

7 6 4 13
9 10 12
5
11 12 6 11
15 10
Input 14 7
D1 TO D5
8
8
R1 TO R5
Parts List:
SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 4050 HEX BUFFER/CONVERTER(NON-INVERTER) 1
IC2 2003 DARLINGTON ARRY 1
RESISTORS
R1 to R5 220 Ohm ¼ Watt Carbon Resistors 5
R6 to R10 2.2 K Ohm ¼ Watt Carbon Resistors 5
DIODES
D1to D5 1N4148 SIGNAL Diodes 5
D6 to D10 Red Indicator LEDs 5
MISCELLANEOUS
RL1-RL5 12 V, 700 Ohm DPDT Reed Relays 5
Circuit Description:
The Hex Buffer/Inverter IC1’s working voltage of +5V is applied at pin-1 and five
control signals are applied at input pins 3, 5, 7, 9 & 11. Thus the signal supplying circuit
[i.e. CONTROLLER] is isolated from this Buffer & Driver circuit. Further the grounding
resistors R1 to R5 prevents the abnormal voltage levels passing inside the IC1. The
buffered outputs are acquired at pins 2, 4, 6, 10, & 12. Thus the varying input is further
stabilized and fed to signal diodes [D1 to D5]. As the load is inductive, there is a chance
of producing back e.m.f. So to cope with this back e.m.f, signal diodes are used. But this
signal level is not strong enough to drive the low impedance relay. So, IC2 Darlington
driver is used. Its working voltage is +12 V and only five input/output pins are used. The
output signal from the Darlington driver IC is strong enough to actuate five relays.
These relays with +12V working voltage can be used to produce five command signals
with RC5 format. The N/O [Normally Open] contact of each relay produces one
command signal with the help of RC5 Transmitter Circuit. The five relays activation with
their corresponding command signal production is tabulated as below:
COMMAND COMMAND
RELAY
NUMBER SIGNAL
RL1 Output-1 TURN LEFT
RL2 Output-2 TURN RIGHT
MOVE
RL3 Output-3
BACKWARD
MOVE
RL4 Output-4
FORWARD
SWITCH
ON/OFF THE
RL5 Output-5
SUCKING
DEVICE
Monostable Multivibrators
Monostable Multivibrators have only ONE stable state (hence their name: “Mono”),
and produce a single output pulse when it is triggered externally. Monostable
Multivibrators only return back to their first original and stable state after a period of time
determined by the time constant of the RC coupled circuit.
 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS
INTERNAL ARRANGEMENT OF 555 TIMER IC
The timer comprises two operational amplifiers (used as comparators) together with an
RS Bistable element. In addition, an inverting output buffer is incorporated so that a
considerable current can be sourced or sunk to/from a load. A single transistor switch,
TR1, is also provided as a means of rapidly discharging the external timing capacitor.
The standard 555 timer is housed in an 8-pin DIL package and operates from supply rail
voltages of between 4.5V and 15V. This encompasses the normal range for TTL devices
and thus the device is ideally suited for use in conjunction with TTL circuitry.
PIN OUT DIAGRAM OF TIMER IC 555
GROUND 1 8 VCC
TRIGGER 2 7
555 DISCHARGE
OUTPUT 3 6 THRESHOLD
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS 555 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS

RESET 5 CONTROL
4
26
+Vcc
R1 R3
4 8
R2 6 Output To
Relay
2 IC1
7
3
1 5
D1
Input C1
C3
C2 R4
470 Parts
List:
GND
SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 555 Timer IC 1
R1 33 K Ohm ¼ Watt 1
R2 1K Ohm ¼ Watt 1
R3 10K Ohm ¼ Watt 1
R4 470 Ohm ¼ Watt 1
D1 Red Light Emitting Diode 1
CAPACITORS
C1 & C3 10 µf / 25V Electrolytic 1
C2 0.1µF Ceramic Disc type 1
MISCELLENOUS
SENSOR PIR Sensor 1
The circuit diagram shows how the timer IC 555 can be used as a Rising Light Level
Switch. In Monostable pulse generator mode, pin 4 is connected to pin 8 and that to
+Vcc. The threshold pin 6 and the discharge pin 7 are connected together to +Vcc by a
resistance R3. The control pin 5 is connected to ground via capacitor C2. The trigger
input pin 2 is connected to +Vcc using a pull-up resistor R1.Here the Human motion
Detector, R2 & C1 gives the triggering pulse needed for Multivibrator.
The current through Monostable Multivibrator will depend upon the human motion
falling on PIR sensor. In full fall the reverse current flowing through human Detector will
be very small. When the PIR has no light source falling on it, the capacitor C2 is
uncharged and the trigger input is low and that switching transistor TR1 (at pin-7) is in
the non-conducting state. Thus the output (at pin-3) is high. The capacitor C1 will begin
to charge toward +Vcc with current supplied by means of the series resistors R1 and R2.
27
When sensor senses a signal at its sensing point, then after sensing it will send signal to
the Monostable Multivibrator. Thus Monostable timing period is initiated by a falling
edge (i.e. ‘High’ to ‘Low’ transition) applied to the trigger input (at pin 2). When such an
edge is received and the ‘trigger’ input voltage falls below ⅓ of Vcc, the output of the
lower comparator goes ‘high’ and the Bistable is placed in the ‘set’ state. The Q output of
the Bistable then goes low, switching transistor TR1 is placed in the ‘OFF’ (non-
conducting) state and the final ‘output’ (at pin-3) goes High. The circuit can be readily
adapted to drive a load with operating current less than about 150mA. So, the indicator
LED (D1) goes ‘ON’ stating the relay is in ON position.
IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER:
Infrared (IR) transmitters and receivers are present in many different devices, though they
are most commonly found in consumer electronics. The way this technology works is that
one component flashes an infrared light in a particular pattern, which another component
can pick up and translate into an instruction. These transmitters and receivers are found in
remote controls and all different types of devices, such as televisions and DVD players.
Peripheral devices that include this technology can also allow a computer to control
various other consumer electronics. Since infrared remotes are limited to line of sight
operation,
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM & ITS DESCRIPTION

The Obstacle Detection System is having circuit blocks as follows: IR Trans-receiver
Module, Variable Power Supply and finally Power Supply.
IR TRANS-RECEIVER MODULE
These IR Transmitter and two IR Receivers are fitted on front side of vehicle and are
continuously switched ON for obstacle detection purpose.
IR TRANSMITTER
The circuit components are explained as:
IR LED: The IR LED or Infra Red Light Emitting Diode is an electronic device which
gives off or emits light when current is passed through it. Like general diode, this IR LED
passes current only in one direction and requires forward operation voltage of about 2V
and forward operation current in 10 to 20 mA range. Maximum reverse voltage that the
IR LED can withstand is typically 3 to 5V, more than this could damage the component.
It does not have any current control function, so, when the IR LED is used in a circuit, a
resistor must be used in series to limit the current flow through it. If greater range is
required, this resistor may be reduced to a minimum value with a consequent adverse
effect on current consumption. Do not reduce the value of resistor unless you do require
28
the greater range, otherwise the relay may not trip reliably close in due to reflections
caused by the high light output. For a good range, the current through the LEDs must be
large. Since, however, currents, the pulses must be short, and this is why PDM is used (In
this type of modulation, the time of occurrence of the first and last transition edge, is
varied from its unmodulated position).
When the IR LED is used in an application such as the remote controlling transmitter,
where the battery is the main source of current, providing continuous high current to keep
the IR LED ON will consume too much of power. So when the power is applied to the IR
LED, the supply is provided as pulses. If the pulse repetition frequency is rapid enough
(more than 50 Hz) then to the receiver eye the IR LED will appear as continuously ON.
For example, instead of supplying 25 mA current continuously, one can provided 50 mA
current as pulse to get brighter light output with the same power consumption. The
Infrared diode used is of plastic pack and is similar in appearance to the familiar Red
LED, except that the plastic encapsulation is deep violet colour.
As stated earlier, the IR Remote Controlling system consists of a set of an IR transmitter
and an IR receiver. Whenever the IR transmitter is activated, it generates a invisible Infra-
red light beam signal and transmits an it towards the IR receiver. The transmitters and
receivers are positioned facing each other.
The source of light in the transmitter is an Infrared LED and rather than merely providing
a continuous source of light, it is flashed on and off at about 10Khz.This is done so that
the receiver can selectively amplify the signal from the transmitter and completely reject
ambient light.
PCM IR TRANSMITTER IC M708/708A
1 VDD 20
TM
P P
2 OSC 19
OUT
C C
P OSC P
3 18
M VSS M
C OUT C
P P
4
IR 17
IR
M H M
C X C
P
Tr P
Tr
5
IR G 16
IR
M M
C
an Z C
an
P
Tr E P
Tr
6
IR 15
IR
M
s M
s
C
an C TEST C
an
P
Tr P
Tr
7
IR
mi 14
IR
mi
M
s A M
s
C
an Q C
an
P
Tr
tte P
Tr
tte
8
IR
mi I 13
IR
mi
M
s M
s
C
an
rTr P C
an
rTr
P
tte M P
tte
9
IR
mi 12
IR
mi
M
s
IC M
s
IC 29
C
an
rP C
an
rP
Tr
tte O Tr
tte
10
IR
mi
:M 11
IR
mi
:M
s
IC s
IC
IR
mi
:M IR
mi
:M
s
IC
C s
IC
1P
an
rTr an
rTr
tte
IR tte
IR
mi
:s
M mi
:s
C
IC
The information is passed from the IR IC
an
rTr rTr Transmitter and Receiver in the form of
an
tte
IR tte
M
mi
:s
combinational digital pulse signals. These mi
:s pulses are transmitted to the receiver by
IC
an IC
an
rTr rIR
modulating tte a carrier frequency using Pulse tteCode Modulation [PCM] method. That means
mi
:s mi
:s
IC
an IC
it usestte r pulse-duration (pulse-width) modulation. rTr The modulated signal is produced in the
tte
mi
:s mi
:an
traditional IC manner of having the audio signal IC set against a pure high-frequency triangular
r r
tte tte
signal :IC mi
generator can be found on 55. If another s
: generator is used, make sure that its off-
IC
r r
set is equal tte to half the supply voltage of 5mi
: :V and its peak value is 2.5 Vpp.
IC IC
r tte
: :
PCM IR IC Transmitter IC: This 20 pin DIL r packaged IC has integrated all the necessary
stages :to transmit the IR pulse beams toIC the receiver. As the pin-out diagram of the IC
shows, pin-20 is supply pin and pin-18 is:ground pin. Since the IC has in-built Oscillator
circuit, whose frequency can be adjusted between 445 K Hz and 510 K Hz, it needs outer
components to oscillate with transmitter circuit needs. SO to get the calculated frequency
range, specific value crystal and capacitors are connected to the pin-2 [OSC IN] and
output is taken on pin-3 [OSC OUT]. This frequency is used by the IC as a reference
frequency to oscillate. The pin-19 is the out pin, which is fed to the transmitter circuit.
Ad A
dre d
ss Transmitte d
Inp d r
ut Code e
Co s
de s
A A A A N
x y
1 2 3 4 o
.
L L 0 0 0 0 1
H L 1 0 0 0 2
L H 0 0 0 1 9
The IC can be 1 used in two
H H 1 0 0 1
modes: Flash 0 Mode, where
pin-1 [Transmission Mode pin] is connected with Supply pin and the average current
30
consumption is 6.5 mA; Carrier Mode, where pin-1 is connected to ground and average
current consumption is around 13 mA.
The address information send in the control word depends on the value of these two pins.
Different combination of Low and High (L & H) value on these two pins will transmit
different address codes as shown in the table.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IR TRANSMITTER
R1
S1 +Vcc
Infra-Red
20 1 LEDs
R2
T1
19 C1
T2
Signal
IC1 Diodes R3
15
18
C
2 2
X1
IC1 3
M708/708A PCM Remote Control Transmitter IC 1
T1 C3
BC377 NPN Transistor 1
T2 BC237 NPN Transistor 1
D1& D2 1N4148 Diode 3
D3 & D4 INFRARED LEDs 2
R1 33 Ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R3 0.39 Ohm, ¼ Watt 1
C1 220F/25V Electrolytic Capacitors 1
31
C2,C3 0.1F Ceramic Disc Capacitors 2
X1 Crystal 1
RL1 12 V, 200 Ohm DPDT Relay 1
S1 Switch 1
Parts List:
The Infra Red Transmitter is made very simple by employing the dedicated &
commercially available IC1. Here the IC1 is used in flash mode by connecting
Transmission Mode Pin 1 to +Vcc, and thus reduces average current consumption to 6.5
mA. In this mode minimum and maximum transmission times are 2.1 milliseconds and
3.6 milliseconds respectively and the duty cycle is 0.7%.
Since the Circuit is intended to send only one signal code, IC1 is configured for address
one [refer the table in IC description] by making all the Address Input pins, Code pins to
zero or ground. As soon the switch S1 is switched ON, the circuit gets its working voltage
of 9 Volts through pin-20. Inside the IC, it creates the address 1 as a command code and
sent to the output pin-19.
This command signal output from the IC1 is given through a resistor R1 to the base of the
Transistor T1. The output from this transistor T1 is fed to the base of another Transistor
T2. These two transistors amplify the command signal to the sufficient level and then
drive the IR LEDs. The Collector of both the transistors is connected to the pair of Infra
Red LEDs. When the transistor T2 goes to saturation region, that means starts
conducting, the current will flow through the two series IR LEDs. Thus they illuminate
for that period and gets off. This process continues as per the switch S1 is pushed ON and
the pulses will be sent through IR LEDs continues. Thus the command signal is
transmitted to IR receiver successfully.
IR Receiver, Driver & Circuit Breaker
The ‘packets’ of infra-red light transmitted from the IR Transmitter of the user remote
control are received on a sensor module which is sensitive to infra-red light. Next, the
signal is converted back into electrical pulses by a 36 KHz receiver and an associated
detector. And that electrical pulse is fed to driver circuit, which in result supply trigger
pulse to Schmitt Trigger circuit. The circuit components are explained as:
IR RECEIVER EYE: An IR Receiver Eye is a module, which is encapsulated with Photo
Transistor whose semiconductor junction is mounted beneath an optical lens. It is
normally used in its open base configuration and act as a light-to-voltage converter. The
base is open; the value of the reverse current across collector and emitter will depend on
the amount of illumination on the base face. In dark conditions it is near zero and under
bright light it is tens or hundreds of mA.
32
This circuit activates the relay whenever there is a presence of Infra Red Rays. The
working principle of this module is very simple:
Power Supply: The mains voltage is step-down to 6V using a transformer. This secondary
6V is rectified using full-wave rectifier, which is composed by D1 & D2 diodes. This is
further filtered using electrolytic capacitor C2 and fed to regulator IC1. This three-
terminal IC stabilizes the input and gives out the constant +5V as working voltage for the
circuit.
IR Receiver: The IR Sensor Module has 3 terminals: signal input, supply pin and the
ground pin. This module works on regulated +5Votls, and exceeding this limit may cause
the damage of it. So, this Sensor is given Vcc through a biasing resistor R1 and grounded
pin is given to negative terminal of the supply. Whenever the Infra Red rays falls on this
Sensors eye [that black mole on Sensor] it produces varying signal voltages at output pin.
This is given to amplifier stage built by an PNP transistor TR1 through an current
limiting resistor R2. The output of this amplifier is fed to a buffer situated in IC2. This
buffer or converter enhances the current capacity of the signal and send to driver stage.
The signal output is monitored by observing the glowing indicator LED D4.
Driver & Circuit Breaker: The driver is built around TR1 and a low-impedance relay. The
signal diode D3 is there to prevent the back e.m.f produced by the switching action of the
relay. When user doesn’t press any key, the receiver does not receive any IR rays from the
opposite end, and hence No signals to TR2 base.
As this E-Power Supply unit’s Receiver senses interrupt of IR Rays from the opposite IR
Transmitter, it alerts driver section. The IR signal from the buffer enters the base of TR2,
it undergoes saturation and activates the relay RL1. Since, relay RL1’s N/O [Normally
Open] pins are connected to Schmitt Trigger Circuit.
Note: The circuit is fully stabilized from the false triggering and other interferences. This
is achieved by using capacitors at proper places. As this is an Unlatch Circuit the relay
actuates only when the IR beams are present at the ‘eye’ of the sensor module. And
releases the switching as-soon-as there are no IR radiations.
Parts List Of IR Receiver:
SEMICONDUCTORS
IC1 7805 Voltage Regulator IC 1
33
IC2 4050 1
T1 BC557 Transistor 1
T2 BC548 Transistor 1
D1TO D3 1N4007 Diode 3
RESISTORS
R2,R6 10 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 2
R3 4.7 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R4 470 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 1
R7 1 Kilo-ohm, ¼ Watt 1
CAPACITORS
C1,C4 1000F/25V Electrolytic Capacitors 2
C2,C5 0.1F Ceramic Disc Capacitors 2
C3 47F/16V Electrolytic Capacitor 1
C6 1F/16V Electrolytic Capacitor 1
MISCELLANEOUS
SENSOR INFRARED SENSOR MODULE 1
D1 Red Indicator LED 1
RL1 12 V, 200 Ohm DPDT Relay 1
X1 6-0-6 Volts Step-down Transformer 1
34
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IR RECEIVER, DRIVER & CIRCUIT BREAKER
Power Supply Section IR Receiver Section Driver Section
RL1
D1
IN IC1 OUT
1 3 N/C
230 V D3
2
AC N/O
C4 C5
R1 Vcc
To Train’s
1 Engine Motor
D2
3 2 T2
IC2 R5
1
X1
C1 Infra Red R2
SENSOR 2 8
MODULE
T1
C2 GND
3
R3 R6
C3
D1
R4
C
6
Gnd
35
 RF TRANSMITTER
The RF transmitter is built around the ASIC and common passive and active components,
which are very easy to obtain from the material shelf. The circuit works on Very High
Frequency band with wide covering range. The Carrier frequency is 147 MHz and Data
frequencies are 17 MHz, 19 MHz,22 MHz & 25 MHz. It should be noted that ASIC or
Application Specific Integrated Circuit is proprietary product and data sheet or pin details
or working principles are not readily available to the user.
ASIC:
Application Specific Integrated Circuit [ASIC] is another option for embedded hardware
developers. The ASIC needs to be custom-built for a specific application, so it is costly. If
the embedded system being designed is a consumer item and is likely to be sold in large
quantities, then going the ASIC route is the best option, as it considerably reduces the
cost of each unit. In addition, size and power consumption will also be reduced. As the
chip count (the number of chips on the system) decreases, reliability increases.
If the embedded system is for the mass market, such as those used in CD players, toys,
and mobile devices, cost is a major consideration. Choosing the right processor, memory
devices, and peripherals to meet the functionality and performance requirements while
keeping the cost reasonable is of critical importance. In such cases, the designers will
develop an Application Specific Integrated Circuit or an Application Specific
Microprocessor to reduce the hardware components and hence the cost. Typically, a
developer first creates a prototype by writing the software for a general-purpose
processor, and subsequently develops an ASIC to reduce the cost.
Oscillator:
An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is known
as a sinusoidal oscillator. Although we speak of an oscillator as “generating” a frequency,
it should be noted that it does not create energy, but merely acts as an energy converter. It
receives D.C. energy and changes it into A.C energy of desired frequency. The frequency
of oscillations depends upon the constants of the device.
A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is known as an
oscillatory circuit or tank circuit. A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C)
and inductance coil (L) in parallel. This electrical system can produce electrical
oscillations of frequency determined by the values of L and C. The sequence of charge
and discharge results in alternating motion of electrons or an oscillating current. The
energy is alternately stored in the electric field of the capacitor and the magnetic field of
the inductance coil. This intercharge of energy between L and C is repeated over and
again resulting in the production of oscillations.
In order to obtain continuous undamped A.C. output from the tank circuit, it is necessary
to supply the correct amount of power to the circuit. The most practical way to do this is
to supply D.C. power to some device which should convert it to necessary A.C. power
for supply to the tank circuit. This can be achieved by employing a transistor circuit.
Because of its ability to amplify, a transistor is very efficient energy converter i.e. it
converts D.C. power to A.C. power. If the damped oscillations in the tank circuit are
applied to the base of transistor, it will result in an amplified reproduction of oscillations
in the collector circuit. Because of this amplification more energy is available in the
collector circuit than in the base circuit. If a part of this collector-circuit energy is
feedback by some means to the base circuit in proper phase to aid the oscillations in the
tank circuit, then its losses will be overcome and continuous undamped oscillations will
occur.
Hartley Oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in radio
receivers. It has two main advantages viz., adaptability to a wide range of frequencies and
is easy to tune.
The RF transmitter is built around the common passive and active components, which are
very is to obtain from the material shelf. The circuit works on Very High Frequency band
with wide covering range.
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
The ASIC Transmitter IC has four inputs and only one output pin. The four inputs are for
the frequency range of 17 KHz, 19 KHz, 22 KHz and 25 KHz and four switches are
provided for each range. When any one switch is selected, that frequency is added to the
Transmitter circuit as data frequency and transmitted in the air. The Crystal X1 with two
coupling capacitor provides the working oscillator frequency to the circuit. The
Capacitors C6 and C7 are to stabilize the crystal oscillator frequency.
The ASIC output is added to the transmitter circuit’s oscillator transistor T1s base. The
data frequency is added with carrier frequency 147 MHz and aired for transmitting
purpose. The transistor T1 is heart of the Hartely Oscillator and oscillates at carrier
frequency of 147 MHz along with tuned circuit formed by coil L1 and capacitor C4. The
37
Data frequency is fed to T1 on base through resistors R4 and R5. Capacitors C1 and C3
and for stabilizing the tuned circuit along with resistor R3.
To increase the range of the circuit, transmitting signals must be strong enough to travel
the long distance [i.e., upto 100 meters in this prototype]. So the generated signals are
made strong by amplifying to certain level with the help of Transistor T2 and associated
circuit.
The Radio frequency thus generated is fed to pre-amplifier transistor T2 on base terminal.
The resistor R6 provides the bias voltage to T2 and capacitors C5 & C7 removes the
noise and harmonics present in the circuit. The antenna coil L2 transmits
38
Parts List
SEMICONDUCTORS:
IC ASIC 1
T1 BC 547 NPN Transistor 1
T2 BF 494 NPN Transistor 1
RESISTORS:
R1 & R2 2.7 K Ohm ¼ Watt 2
R3 & R6 330 K Ohm ¼ Watt 2
CAPACITORS:
C1, C2 0.001 Pico Farad Capacitor 2
C3 & C7 0.022 Pico Farad Capacitor 2
C4 4.7 Pico Farad Capacitor 1
C5 & C6 0.01 Micro Farad Capacitor 2
MISCELLANEOUS:
X1 1.44 MHz Crystal 1
S1 to S4 ON/OFF SWITCHES 4
L1 RF Coil 200mH 1
L2 Aerial or Telescopic Antenna 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RF TRANSMITTER
L2
+Vcc
L1 C5
C7
C6 R6
17 KHz S1 X1 C3 C4
C7
19KHz S2
22 KHz S3
ASIC R3 C2
25 KHz S4 330K T1
0.00
R4 C1 R5 1 T2
R2
2K7
R1
Gnd
 RF RECEIVER MODULE
This circuit is built around the ASIC i.e., Application Specific Integrated Circuit, hence
less circuitry is observed. The Radio Frequency tuned circuit has 147 M Hz carrier
frequency with four options viz., 17Khz, 19Khz, 22KHz and 25KHz.
The transmitted signals are received on coil L1 which acts as receiver antenna. The
oscillator transistor removes the received signals from 147MHz carrier frequency and fed
to ASIC. The tank circuit formed by C1 and L1 gives the carrier frequency range. The
current limiting resistor R1 and bypass capacitor C5 stabilizes the oscillator. The resistor
R2, R3 and R4 provide the biasing voltage to the oscillator transistor T1. Capacitors C2
and C3 are there to bypass the noise and harmonics present in the received signals.
Through coupling capacitor C7 output of the RF Receiver is fed to ASIC.
The ASIC manipulates the received signal and gives out four channels as output viz.,
17KHz, 19KHz, 22KHz and 25KHz. Each channel is amplified by pre-amplifier
transistor T2 along with bias resistor R9. The output of the pre-amplifier transistor is fed
to relay driver stage to activate the respective relay ON. The Darlington pair T3 and T4
are arranged in driver stage to drive the low impedance relay.
PARTS LIST:
SEMICONDUCTORS:
IC ASIC 1
T1 BC 547 NPN Transistor 1
T2 BF 494 NPN Transistor 4
T3&T4 BC 548 NPN Transistor 8
RESISTORS:
R1 & R2 270 K Ohm ¼ Watt 2
R3 & R6 220 Ohm ¼ Watt 2
R4 2.2 K Ohm ¼ Watt 1
R5 2.2 M Ohm ¼ Watt 1
CAPACITORS:
C1, C2 0.001 Pico Farad Capacitor 2
C3 & C7 0.022 Pico Farad Capacitor 2
C4 4.7 Pico Farad Capacitor 1
C5 & C6 0.01 Micro Farad Capacitor 2
L1 RF Coil 200mH 1
42
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RF RECEIVER
+Vcc
R6
RL
R9 1
R2 R7
C1 L1
7 6 5 4 3 2 1
C2 R8 T3
T2
ASIC T4
R3 C7
C3
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 +Vcc
R1
T1
C6 RL2
R9
C5 C4
T3
R4 R5 R8
T2
T4
 MICROCONTROLLER
MICROCONTROLLER BASICS
The field parameters are monitored by this Microcontroller chip with the help of user
written program and generates alert message for LCD display and fault code for remote
monitoring end transmission. The Microcontroller Chip has input port for getting fault
condition of field parameters and ‘Stop’ signal through RF Receiver and output port for
sending fault code to DTMF Encoder and switching Relay [MCB] for isolating power
line from load.
INTRODUCTION OF MICRO-CONTROLLER
What is a microcontroller?
The general definition of a microcontroller is a single chip computer, which refers to the
fact that they contain all of the functional sections (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, ports and
timers) of a traditionally defined computer on a single integrated circuit. Some experts
even describe them as special purpose computers with several qualifying distinctions that
separate them from other computers.
Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product) so
that they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a
microcontroller, therefore, is "embedded controller."
Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is
stored in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change. Microcontrollers are
often low-power devices. A desktop computer is almost always plugged into a wall socket
and might consume 50 watts of electricity. A battery-operated microcontroller might
consume 50 mill watts.
A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small
LED or LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it is
controlling and controls the device by sending signals to different components in the
device.A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components are chosen to
minimize size and to be as inexpensive as possible. A microcontroller is often, but not
always, ruggedized in some way. The microcontroller controlling a car's engine, for
example, has to work in temperature extremes that a normal computer generally cannot
handle. A car's microcontroller in Kashmir regions has to work fine in -30 degree F (-34
C) weather, while the same microcontroller in Gujarat region might be operating at 120
degrees F (49 C). When you add the heat naturally generated by the engine, the
temperature can go as high as 150 or 180 degrees F (65-80 C) in the engine
compartment. On the other hand, a microcontroller embedded inside a VCR hasn't been
ruggedized at all.
Clearly, the distinction between a computer and a microcontroller is sometimes blurred.
Applying these guidelines will, in most cases, clarify the role of a particular device.
ATMEL 89C51 Technical Description
The ATmel 89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with

4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The ATmel
89C51 device is manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory
technology and is compatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and
pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or
by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU
with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which
provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control
applications.
The ATmel 89C51 provides the following standard features: 4K Bytes of Flash, 128 bytes
of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bit timer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt
architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry. In addition,
the 89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports
two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while
allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue
functioning. The AT89C51 Power-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.
 Compatible with MCS-51 Products

 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory
 Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz
 Three-level Program Memory Lock
 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32
 Programmable I/O Lines
 Two 16-bit Timer/Counters
 Six Interrupt Sources Programmable Serial Channel
 Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes 40-pin DIP
45
COMPLETE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM [MOTHER BOARD] OF 89C51
D1 & D2 IC1
40 X1 +VCC
30 pF
19
+Vcc
XTAL1 P0.7 AD7
VCC 230 AC
32 AD6 R1
12 MHz P0.6 AD5 C1 C2 C3
18 XTAL2 AD4
33 D3
P0.5 AD3
30 pF
34 AD2
P0.4 AD1
35 AD0
29
P0.3 PORT 0 8 x 2.2 KΩ
PSEN 36
P1.7
+VCC
P0.2
8
30 ALE 37
P1.6
10 MFD/63V
P0.1
7
31 EA
38
P1.5
20KΩ RESET 89C51
9 P0.0
6
RST
SWITCH 39
P1.4
5
RD 17 P1.3 PORT 1
WR 4P2.7
P3.7 A15
T1 P1.2
28
16 A14
3P2.6
T0 A13
P3.6 P1.1
27 A12
INT1 15 2P2.5
A11
INT0 P3.5 P1.0
26 A10
TXD 14 1P2.4
1
A9
RXD P3.4 25 A8
VSS
P2.3 PORT 2
PORT 3 13
24
P3.3 20
P2.2
12
23
P3.2 P2.1
11 22
P2.0
P3.1
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION 21 1
10
The mother board of 89C51 has following sections: Power Supply, 89C51 IC, Oscillator,
P3.0
Reset Switch & I/O ports. Let us see these sections in detail.
POWER SUPPLY:
This section provides the clean and harmonic free power to IC to function properly. The
output of the full wave rectifier section, which is built using two rectifier diodes, is given
to filter capacitor. The electrolytic capacitor C1 filters the pulsating dc into pure dc and
given to Vin pin-1 of regulator IC 7805.This three terminal IC regulates the rectified
pulsating dc to constant +5 volts. C2 & C3 provides ground path to harmonic signals
present in the inputted voltage. The Vout pin-3 gives constant, regulated and spikes free
+5 volts to the mother board.
The allocation of the pins of the 89C51 follows a U-shape distribution. The top left hand
corner is Pin 1 and down to bottom left hand corner is Pin 20. And the bottom right hand
corner is Pin 21 and up to the top right hand corner is Pin 40. The Supply Voltage pin Vcc
is 40 and ground pin Vss is 20.
OSCILLATOR:
If the CPU is the brain of the system then the oscillator, or clock, is the heartbeat. It
provides the critical timing functions for the rest of the chip. The greatest timing accuracy
is achieved with a crystal or ceramic resonator. For crystals of 2.0 to 12.0 MHz, the
recommended capacitor values should be in the range of 15 to 33pf2.
Across the oscillator input pins 18 & 19 a crystal x1 of 4.7 MHz to 20 MHz value can be
connected. The two ceramic disc type capacitors of value 30pF are connected across
crystal and ground, stabilizes the oscillation frequency generated by crystal.
I/O PORTS:
There are a total of 32 i/o pins available on this chip. The amazing part about these ports
is that they can be programmed to be either input or output ports, even "on the fly" during
operation! Each pin can source 20 mA (max) so it can directly drive an LED. They can
also sink a maximum of 25 Ma current.
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral
features on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used
as a general purpose I/O pin. The alternate function of each pin is not discussed here, as
port accessing circuit takes care of that.
This 89C51 IC has four I/O ports and is discussed in detail: P0.0 TO P0.7
PORT0 is an 8-bit [pins 32 to 39] open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port,
each pin can sink eight TTL inputs and configured to be multiplexed low order
address/data bus then has internal pull ups. External pull ups are required during program
verification.
P1.0 TO P1.7
PORT1 is an 8-bit wide [pins 1 to 8], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. P1.0 and
P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input and the
timer/counter 2 trigger input respectively.
P2.0 TO P2.7
PORT2 is an 8-bit wide [pins 21 to 28], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The
PORT2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It receives the high-order address
bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.
P3.0 TO P3.7
PORT3 is an 8-bit wide [pins 10 to 17], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The
Port3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It also receives some control
signals for Flash programming and verification.
PSEN
Program Store Enable [Pin 29] is the read strobe to external program memory.
ALE
Address Latch Enable [Pin 30] is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address
during accesses to external memory.
EA
External Access Enable [Pin 31] must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device
to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H upto FFFFH.
RST
48
Reset input [Pin 9] must be made high for two machine cycles to resets the device’s
oscillator. The potential difference is created using 10MFD/63V electrolytic capacitor and
20KOhm resistor with a reset switch.
LCD MODULE
LCDs can add a lot to any application in terms of providing an useful interface for the
user, debugging an application or just giving it a "professional" look. The most common
type of LCD controller is the Hitachi 44780 which provides a relatively simple interface
between a processor and an LCD. Using this interface is often not attempted by
inexperienced designers and programmers because it is difficult to find good
documentation on the interface, initializing the interface can be a problem and the
displays themselves are expensive.
The most common connector used for the 44780 based LCDs is 14 pins in a row, with pin
centers 0.100" apart. The pins are wired as:
LCD DATA WRITE WAVEFORM
DATA
R/_S
R/_W
E
450
nSec
Pins Description
1 Ground
2 Vcc
3 Contrast Voltage
4 "R/S"
_Instruction/Register
Select
5 "R/W" _Read/Write
LCD Registers
6 "E" Clock
49
7 - Data I/O Pins
14
The interface is a parallel bus, allowing simple and fast reading/writing of data to and
from the LCD.
The LCD Data Write Waveform will write an ASCII Byte out to the LCD's screen. The
ASCII code to be displayed is eight bits long and is sent to the LCD either four or eight
bits at a time. If four bit mode is used, two "nibbles" of data (Sent high four bits and then
low four bits with an "E" Clock pulse with each nibble) are sent to make up a full eight
bit transfer. The "E" Clock is used to initiate the data transfer within the LCD.
Sending parallel data as either four or eight bits are the two primary modes of operation.
While there are secondary considerations and modes, deciding how to send the data to the
LCD is most critical decision to be made for an LCD interface application.
The different instructions available for use with the 44780 are shown in the table below:
R/S R/W D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Instruction/Description
4 5 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 Pins
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Clear Display
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 * Return Cursor and LCD to Home Position
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ID S Set Cursor Move Direction
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C B Enable Display/Cursor
0 0 0 0 0 1 SC RL * * Move Cursor/Shift Display
0 0 0 0 1 DL N F * * Set Interface Length
0 0 0 1 A A A A A A Move Cursor into CGRAM
0 0 1 A A A A A A A Move Cursor to Display
0 1 BF * * * * * * * Poll the "Busy Flag"
1 0 D D D D D D D D Write a Character to the Display at the
Current Cursor Position
1 1 D D D D D D D D Read the Character on the Display at the
Current Cursor Position
The bit descriptions for the different commands are:
"*" - Not Used/Ignored. This bit can be either "1" or "0"
Most LCD displays have a 44780 and support chip to control the operation of the LCD.
The 44780 is responsible for the external interface and provides sufficient control lines
for sixteen characters on the LCD. The support chip enhances the I/O of the 44780 to
support up to 128 characters on an LCD. From the table above, it should be noted that the
first two entries ("8x1", "16x1") only have the 44780 and not the support chip. This is
why the ninth character in the 16x1 does not "appear" at address 8 and shows up at the
address that is common for a two line LCD.
The Character Set available in the 44780 is basically ASCII. It is "basically" because
some characters do not follow the ASCII convention fully (probably the most significant
50
difference is 0x05B or "\" is not available). The ASCII Control Characters (0x008 to
0x01F) do not respond as control characters and may display funny (Japanese) characters.
The last aspect of the LCD to discuss is how to specify a contrast voltage to the
Shift Register LCD Data Write

+Vcc
Data R6
D0
Data S/R D1
Pin-3 Contrast
0
Clock
Process 0
Dn 10K pot
or LCD
E Clock
E
LCD
LCD Contrast Circuit

Display. Experts typically use a potentiometer wired as a voltage divider. This will
provide an easily variable voltage between Ground and Vcc, which will be used to
specify the contrast (or "darkness") of the characters on the LCD screen. You may find
that different LCDs work differently with lower voltages providing darker characters in
some and higher voltages do the same thing in others.
Liquid crystal panel service life 100,000 hours minimum at 25 oC -10 oC

3.3 definition of panel service life
 Contrast becomes 30% of initial value
 Current consumption becomes three times higher than initial value
 Remarkable alignment deterioration occurs in LCK cell layer
Unusual operation occurs in display functions
Safety
If the LCD panel breaks, be careful not to get the liquid crystal in your mouth. If the
liquid crystal touches your skin or clothes, wash it off immediately using soap and plenty
of water.
CHAPTER 8:
APPLICATIONS AND FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
51
8.1 APPLICATIONS
1. This system can be implemented in industries.

2. This system can be used to monitoring and controlling the home appliances
8.2 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT
We can implement with ARM processor for faster response.
CHAPTER 9:
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
9.1 ADVANTAGES
1. High-speed wireless data transmissions

2. High-quality voice transmissions
3. Current networks usable without additional setup
4. Low power consumption
5. Cost efficiency.
6. In this project losses are Minimal.
7. This project can implement for Security of supply.
52
9.2 DISADVANTAGES
1. To transmit the data it should be in the line of sight.
CHAPTER 10:
RESULT/CONCLUSION
The system is tested by moving vehicle in different zones that is A,B,C and PHS placed at about 7 ft
away. When the vehicle travelled into area A the IR rays from vehicle transmitter unit were detected
by transceiver unit of area A. The transceiver sent code corresponding to area A, which is detected by
host controller. The 3 bit combination is given input to driver and buffer. The output of driver is 5V
for „1‟ and 0V for „0‟. This output voltage is used to drive three relays. Relay coils are activated
with 12V supply. The normally close terminal of each relay is connected to ground, normally open
terminal is connected to port 3 pins while input terminal is connected to 5V. The microcontroller then
compares the received code on port 3 to the code assigned for each area and displays corresponding
53
area on LCD. The same procedure is followed for PHS module validation. PHS unit includes one
additional transceiver unit which prototyped as satellite. This unit increases the area covered for
vehicle detection. The broadcaster unit and satellite unit are placed away; when the IR signal from
vehicle is detected by PHS unit it transmits the code for the respective area to the satellite module
instead of host controller. This activates the relay of satellite module which transmits same code to
the host. The corresponding area is displayed on LCD as PHS area. The transmission is in the form of
light hence any opaque object of glass causes the interruption in transmission and the host controller
cannot detect the signal. Validation of Locking System The remote locking system stops the vehicle
when it is stolen using owners mobile phone. This is achieved using DTMF decoder technique. For
the demonstration of locking system one mobile is placed on vehicle which is kept on auto receive
mode. When a call is received from the mobile placed remotely digit „1‟ is used to move the vehicle
and digit „2‟ stops the vehicle. In DTMF decoding each digit is assigned two
CHAPTER 11:
GENERAL COMPONENTS
 RESISTORS :
54
In many electronic circuit applications the resistance forms the basic part of the circuit.
The reason for inserting the resistance is to reduce current or to produce the desired
voltage drop . These components which offer value of resistance are known as resistors .
Resistors may have fixed value i.e., whose value cannot be changed and are known as
fixed resistors . Such of those resistors whose value can be changed or varied are known
as variable resistors.
There are two types of resistors available. They are :

 Carbon resistors .
 Wire wound resistors .
Carbon resistors are used when the power dissipation is less than 2W because they are
smaller and cost less. Wire wound resistors are used where the power dissipation is more
than 5W . In electronic equipments carbon resistors are widely used because of their
smaller size .
All resistors have three main characteristics:
 Its resistance R in ohms (from 1 ohm to many mega ohms ).
 Power rating (from several 0.1W to 10 W ) .
 Tolerance (in percentage ) .
 RESISTOR COLOUR CODING

The carbon resistors are small in size and are color coded to indicate their resistance
value in ohms. Different colors are used to indicate the numeric values. The dark colors
represent lower values and the lighter colors represent the higher values. The color code
has been standardized by the electronic industries association.
55
The color bands are printed at one end of the resistors and are read from the left to right.
The first color band closed to the edge indicates the first digit in the value of resistance
.The second band gives the second digit. The third band gives the number of zero’s after
two digits. The resulting number is the resistance in ohms. A fourth band indicates the
tolerance i.e., to indicate how accurate the resistance value is , the bands are shown in the
figure 1.
Fig. 1: Colour code for Resistor
 PRESET
There are two general categories of variable resistors:

 General purpose resistors.
 Precision resistors.
The general purpose type can again be wire wound type and carbon type .These follows
either linear or logarithmic law. The precision type are always wire wound and follow a
linear law .The variable resistors can be broadly classified as potentiometer , rheostats ,
presets and decade resistance boxes.
The general purpose wire wound potentiometers are available in 1, 2, 3 and 4 watts. The
usual tolerances ratings 10 % and 20% are available. The widely used potentiometers are
56
of the standard diameters 19mm, 31mm, and 44mm. The temperature coefficient depends
on the wire used and on the resistors values. The resolution of these wire wound resistors
is proper than carbon resistors because the wiper has to move from one winding to the
other, where as in carbon potentiometers it is continuous. These resistors are highly
linear, the linearity falling with 1%.
 CAPACITORS:
Devices which can store electronic charge are called capacitors. Capacitance can be
understood as the ability of a dielectric to store electric charges. Its unit is Farad, named
after the Michael Faraday. The capacitors are named according to the dielectric used.
Most common ones are air, paper, and mica, ceramic and electrolytic capacitors.
Physically a capacitor has conducting plates separated by an insulator or the dielectric.

The plates of the capacitor have opposite charge, this gives rise to an electric field .In
capacitor the electric field is concentrated in the dielectric between the plates.
Like resistors, capacitors are also crucial to the correct working of nearly every
electronic circuit and provide us with a means of storing electrical energy in the form of
an electric field. Capacitors have numerous applications including storage capacitors in
power supplies, coupling of A.C. signals between the stages of an amplifier, and
decoupling power supply rails so that, As far as A.C. signal components are concerned,
the supply rails are indistinguishable from zero volts.
 TYPES OF CAPACITORS:
 DISC CAPACITORS :
In the disk form, silver is fired on to both sides of the ceramic to form the conductor
plates. The sheets are then baked and cut to the appropriate shape and size & attached by
pressure contact and soldering . These have high capacitance per unit volume and are
very economical. The disks are lacquered or encapsulated in plastic or Phenolic molding.
Round disk are used at high voltages the capacitance of values upto 0.01F can be
57
obtained. They have tolerance of +20% or –20%. In general these capacitors have voltage
ratings upto 750 V d.c.
 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS :
These capacitors derive the name from electrolyte which is used as a medium to produce
high dielectric constants. These capacitors have low value for large capacitances at low
working voltages.
There are two types of Electrolytic capacitors:

 Aluminum Electrolytic capacitors .
 Tantalum electrolytic capacitors .
Electrolytic capacitors are used in circuits that have combination of D.C. voltage and
A.C. The D.C. voltage maintains the polarity . They are used as ‘ripple filter ‘ where
large capacitance are required at low cost in small space . They are also used as ‘biased
capacitors ‘ and ‘decoupling capacitors ‘ and even as ‘coupling capacitors ‘ in R- C
amplifier.
 COLOUR CODING :
Mica and tubular ceramic capacitors are color coded to indicate a capacitance value . As
coding is necessary only for very small sizes, color coded capacitors value is also in the
pF . The colors are the same as for the resistor coding from black for ‘0’ upto white for
‘9’. Mica capacitors use ‘ six dot code system’.
 SIX DOT CODE :

Here the top row is read from the left to right and the bottom from right to left .The dot
indicates the following:
(1). White. (2). Digit. (3). Digit. (4). Multiplier. (5). Tolerance. (6). Class.
58
White for the first dot indicates the coding. The capacitance value is read from the next
three dots. If the first dot is silver it indicates paper capacitor. The white colored band
indicates the left and specifies the temperature coefficient . The next three colors indicate
the value of capacitance . For example Brown, Black, Brown = 100 pF.
DIODES:
To ensure unidirectional flow of liquid we use mechanical valves in its path. By properly
arranging these valves in a system we get useful devices such as pumps and locomotives.
In the field of electronics too we have a valve called semiconductor diode (a counterpart
of thermionic valve) for controlling the flow of electric current in one direction. But we
use these diodes in circuits for limited purposes like converting AC to DC, by passing
EMF etc. a diode allows current to pass through it provided it is forward biased and the
biasing voltage is more than potential barrier (forward voltage drop) of the diode
 AUTOMATIC SWITCHOVER TO BATTERY
An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) is necessary for a main operated clock. This
facility is very useful in transistors and two in ones for recording or listening to news
programs. A relay can do this job with a battery backup. But the relay takes several
milliseconds before it makes contact. Moreover, it is costly and occupies space.
The same task can be achieved with a single diode. Just connect a germanium diode
DR50 (D1) as shown in fig 1.when the power is available form the eliminator or the
external power source, the gadget will use the
A
power from it. As points A and B are at
same potential, the external power is remove, point B will be at higher potential that point
A i.e. D1 is forward biased and current flows from the battery. In no case the voltage
+ of
+
the eliminator or the external power source should be lessD1than the voltage of the battery.
DR50
Otherwise, the current will flow from the battery during mains operation also and the
FROM BATTERY
TO REST OF THE B ELIMINATOR
battery will be drained quickly.
CIRCUIT OF THE
GADGET
BATTERY
59
FIG 1: AUTOMATIC SWITCHOVER TO BATTERY
 TRANSISTOR:
The transistor an entirely new type of electronic device is capable of achieving

amplification of weak signals in a fashion comparable and often superior to that realized
by vacuum tubes. Transistors are far smaller than vacuum tube, have no filaments and
hence need no heating power and may be operates in any position. They are mechanically
strong, hence practically unlimited life and can do some jobs better than vacuum tubes.
Invented in 1948 by J. Bardeen and W.H.Brattain of Bell Telephone Laboratories, a

transistor has now become the heart of most electronic appliance. Though transistor is
only slightly more the 45 years old, yet it is fast replacing vacuum tubes in almost all
applications.
A transistor consists of two pn junction formed by sand witching either p-type or n-type
semiconductor between a pair of opposite type. Accordingly, there are two types of
transistors namely:
 n-p-n transistor
 p-n-p transistor
60
An n-p-n is composed of two n-type semiconductors separated a by thin section of p-type.
However, a p-n-p is formed by two p-section separated by a thin section of n-type.
 These are two pn junctions. Therefore, a transistor may be regarded as a

combination of two diodes connected back to back.
 There are 3 terminals, taken from each type of semiconductor.
 The middle section is very thin layer. This is the most important factor in the
functioning of a transistor.
Origin of the name “transistor “: When new devices are invented, scientists often try to
device a name that will appropriately describe the device. A transistor has two pn
junctions. As the discussed later one junction is forward biased and the other is reversed
biased. The forward biased junction has low resistance path whereas the reverse biased
junction has low resistance path whereas the reverse biased junction has a high resistance
path. The weak signal is introduced in the low resistance circuit and output is taken from
the high resistance circuit. Therefore, a transistor transfers a signal from a low resistance
to high resistance. The prefix ‘tans’ means the signal transfer property of the device while
‘istor’ classifies it as a solid element in the same general family with resistors.
 NAMING THE TRANSISTOR TERMINALS:
A transistor (PnP or NPN) has three sections of doped semiconductors. The section on
one side is the emitter and the section on the opposite side is the collector. The middle
section is called the base and forms two junctions between the emitter and collector.
 Emitter: - The section on one side that supplies charge carriers (electrons or holes)
is called the emitter. The emitter is always forward biased w.r.t base so that it can
supply a large number of majority carriers.
 Collector: - The section on the other side that collects the charge is called the
collector. The collector is always reversing biased. Its function is to remove
charges from its junction with the base.
 Base: - The middle section, which forms to pn junctions between the emitter and
collector, is called base. The base emitter junction is forward biased, allowing low
resistance for the emitter circuit. The base-collector junction is reversed biased
and provides high resistance in the collector circuit.
61
 CHARCTERISTICS OF TRANSISTORS
Whenever we have to decide about the applications of a transistor certain question arises.
Some of these are – how much amplification gets from it? What is the highest frequency
upto which it can be used? How much power output could we get from it? And what
should be the values of different components used in the circuits? The answers to these
entire questions lie in the electrical properties of the transistor. These properties depend
on the size, manufacturing techniques and materials used in the
manufacturer of transistor and are know as characteristics. Transistor manufacturers give

these characteristics in the data sheets published by them.
 Current gain factor ‘alpha’ ()
 Current gain factor ‘beta’ ()
 Input resistance (Rin)
 Output resistance (Rout)
 Cut-off frequency (F  and F)
 Leakage current (I ‘co)
 Maximum collector voltage (Vceo)
 Maximum emitter current (IC Max)
 Maximum Power dissipation (P max)
 RELAY:
62
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete
electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another.
Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform
logical operations.A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly
drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with
no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with
calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to
protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
 BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION:
A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron
armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving
contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an
air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the
relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer
sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire
connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB)
via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes
or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of
contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the
contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the
current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half
as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a
spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a
high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
63
When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would
otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some
automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection
network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the
surge. If the coil is designed to be energized
with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of
the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle.[1]
A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a
light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control
and controlled circuits.
 DC MOTOR:
The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines devised to convert electrical
power into mechanical power. Permanent magnet (PM) direct current convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields. One field is
produced by a permanent magnet assembly, the other field is produced by an electrical
current flowing in the motor windings. These two fields result in a torque which tends to
rotate the rotor. As the rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a
continuous torque output Permanent magnet (PM) motors are propably the most
commonly used DC motors, but there are also some other type of DC motors (types
which use coils to make the permanent magentic field also).
DC motors operate from a direct current power source. Movement of the magnetic field is
achieved by switching current between coils within the motor. This action is called
64
"commutation". Very many DC motors (brush-type) have built-in commutation, meaning
that as the motor rotates, mechanical brushes automatically commutate coils on the rotor.
Motor speed control of DC motor is nothing new. A simplest method to control the
rotation speed of a DC motor is to control it's driving voltage. The higher the voltage is,
the higher speed the motor tries to reach. In many applications a simple votlage
regulation would cause lots of power loss on control circuit, so a pulse width modulation
method (PWM) is used in many DC motor controlling applications. In the basic Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) method, the operating power to the motors is
turned on and off to modulate the current to the motor. The ratio of "on" time to "off"
time is what determines the speed of the motor.
Sometimes the rotation direction needs to be changed. In normal prmanent magnet
motors, this rotation is changed by changing the polarity of operating power (for example
by switching from negative power supply topositive or by interchanging the power
terminals going to power supply). This directrion chanign is typicaly implemented using
relay or a circuit called an H bridge.
Besides "brush-type" DC motors, there is another DC motor type: brushless DC motor.
Brushless DC motors rely on the external power drive to perform the commutation of
stationary copper winding on the stator. This changing stator field makes the permanent
magnet rotor to rotate. A brushless permanent magnet motor is the highest performing
motor in terms of torque / vs. weight or efficiency. Brushless motors are usually the most
expensive type of motor. Electronically commutated, brush-less DC motor systems are
widely used as drives for blowers and fans used in electronics, telecommunications and
industrial equipment applications. There is wide variety of different brush-less motors for
various applications. Some are designed to to rotate at constant speed (those used in disk
drives) and the speed of some can be controlled by varying the voltage applid to them
(usually the motors used in fans). Some brushless DC motors have a built-in tachometer
which gives out pulses as the motor rotates (this applies to both disk drive motors and
some computer fans).
In general, users select brush-type DC motors when low system cost is a priority, and
brushless motors to fulfil other requirements (such as maintenance-free operation, high
speeds, and explosive environments where sparking could be hazardous). Brush type DC
motors are used in very many battery powered appliances. Brushless DC motors are
commonly used in applications like DC powered fans and disk drive rotation motors.
 INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
65
All modern digital systems rely on the use of integrated circuits in which hundreds of
thousands of components are fabricated on a single chip of silicon. A relative measure of
the number of individual semiconductor devices within the chip is given by referring to
its ‘scale of integration’. The following terminology is commonly applied.
Scale of integration Abbreviation Number of logic gates
Small SSI 1 to 10
Medium MSI 10 to 100
Large LSI 100 to 1000
Very large VLSI 1000 to 10,000
Super large SLSI 10,000to 100,000
 ENCAPSULATION
The most common package used to encapsulate an integrated circuit, and that with which
most reader will be familiar, is the plastic dual-in-line (DIL) type. These are available
with a differing number of pins depending upon the complexity of the integrated circuit
in question and, in particular, the need to provide external connections to the device.
Conventional logic gates, for example, are often supplied in 14-pin or 16-pin DIL
packages, whilst microprocessors (and their more complex support devices) often require
40-pins or more.
 IDENTIFICATION
When delving into an unfamiliar piece of equipment, one of the most common problems
is that of identifying the integrated circuit devices. To aid us in this task, manufacturers
provide some coding on the upper surface of each chip. Such a coding generally includes
the type number of the chip (including some of the generic coding), the manufacturer’s
66
name (usually in the form of prefix letters), and the classification of the device (in the
form of a prefix, infix or suffix).
In many cases the coding is further extended to indicate such things as encapsulation,
date of manufacture, and any special characteristics of the device. Unfortunately, all of
this potentially useful information often leads to some considerable confusion due to
inconsistencies in marking from one manufacturer to the next!
 LOGIC FAMILIES
The integrated circuit device on which modern digital circuitry depends belongs to one or
other of several ‘logic families’. The term simply describes the type of semiconductor
technology employed in the fabrication of the integrated circuit. This technology is
instrumental in determining the characteristics of a particular device. This, however, is
quite different from its characteristics, and encompasses such important criteria as supply
voltage, power dissipation, switching speed and immunity to noise.
The most popular logic families, at least as far as the more basic general purpose devices
are concerned, are complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) and transistor
transistor logic (TTL). TTL also has a number of sub-families including the popular low
power Schottky (LS-TTL) variants.
The most common range of conventional TTL logic devices is known as the ‘74’ series.
These devices are, not surprisingly, distinguished by the prefix number 74 in their coding.
Thus devices coded with the numbers 7400, 7408, 7432 and 74121 are all members of
this family which is often referred to as ‘Standard TTL’. Low power Schottky variants of
these devices are distinguished by an LS infix. The coding would then be 74LS00,
74LS08, 74LS32 and 74LS121.
Popular CMOS devices from part of the ‘4000’ series and are coded with an initial prefix
of 4. Thus 4001, 4174, 4501 and 4574 are all CMOS devices. CMOS devices are
sometimes also given a suffix letter; A to denote the ‘original’ (now obsolete) unbuffered
series, and B to denote the improved (buffered) series. A UB suffix denotes an unbuffered
B-series device.
Infix letters Meaning
C CMOS version of a corresponding TTL device

F ‘Fast’ – a high speed version of the device
H High speed version
S Schottky (a name resulting from the input circuit Configuration)
HC High speed CMOS version (with CMOS compatible inputs)
HCT High speed CMOS version (with TTL compatible inputs)
67
68
CHAPTER 12:
PCB DESIGING AND SOLDERING DESIGNING
12.1 PCB DESIGNING:
 Design your circuit board. Use PCB computer-aided design (CAD) software to
draw your circuit board. You can also use a perforated board that has pre-drilled
holes in it to help you see how your circuit board's components would be placed
and work in reality.
 Buy a plain board that is coated with a fine layer of copper on one side from a
retailer.
 Scrub the board with a scouring pad and water to make sure the copper is clean.
Let the board dry.
 Print your circuit board's design onto the dull side of a sheet of blue transfer
paper. Make sure the design is oriented correctly for transfer.
 Place the blue transfer paper on the board with the circuit board's printed design
against the copper.
 Lay a sheet of ordinary white paper over the blue paper. Following the transfer
paper's instructions, iron over the white and blue paper to transfer the design onto
the copper board. Iron every design detail that appears near an edge or corner of
the board with the tip of the iron.
 Let the board and blue paper cool. Peel the blue paper slowly away from the
board to see the transferred design.
 Examine the transfer paper to check for any black toner from the printed design
that failed to transfer to the copper board. Make sure the board's design is oriented
correctly.
69
 Replace any missing toner on the board with ink from a black permanent marker.
Allow the ink to dry for a few hours.
 Remove exposed parts of the copper from the board using ferric chloride in a
process called etching.
 Put on old clothes, gloves and safety goggles.
 Warm the ferric chloride, stored in a non-corrosive jar and sealed with a non-
corrosive lid, in a bucket of warm water. Do not heat it above 115 F (46 C) to
prevent toxic fumes from being released.
 Pour only enough ferric chloride to fill a plastic tray that has plastic risers in it to
rest the circuit board on. Be sure to do this in a well-ventilated space.
 Use plastic tongs to lay the circuit board face down on the risers in the tray. Allow
5 to 20 minutes, depending on the size of your circuit board, for the exposed
copper to drop off the board as it etches away. Use the plastic tongs to agitate the
board and tray to allow for faster etching if necessary.
 Wash all the etching equipment and the circuit board thoroughly with plenty of
running water.
 Drill 0.03 inch (0.8 mm) lead component holes into your circuit board with high-
speed steel or carbide drill bits. Wear safety goggles and a protective mask to
protect your eyes and lungs while you drill.
 Scrub the board clean with a scouring pad and running water. Add your board's
electrical components and solder them into place.
12.2 SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
So Soldering is the only permanent way to ‘fix’ components to a circuit. However,

soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to ‘destroy’ many hours preparation and
Design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a good
Chance of success.
Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip

to make sure that it is not past good operation. If it
looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a
good joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one
soldering iron to the next but generally they should
look clean and not burnt.
70
A PCB eraser is used to remove any film from the tracks. This must be done carefully
Because the film will prevent good soldering of the components to the PCB. The tracks can
be checked using a magnifying glass. If there are gaps in the tracks, sometimes they can be
repaired using wire but usually a new PCB has to be etched.
The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the
component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder can be applied.
The solder should flow through and around the component and the track
Having completed soldering the circuit the extended legs on the components need to be
trimmed using wire clippers. The circuit is now ready for testing.
71
CHAPTER 13:
REFERENCES
[1] T.Komine and M.Nakagawa, ”Fundamental analysis for visible light communication
systems using LED Lights,” IEEE Trans. Consumer Electronics, vol. 59, no.1, Feb,
2004.
[2] M.Kavehrad, “Sustainable Energy Efficient Wireless Applications Using Light,”
IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 48, no. 12, Dec. 2010, pp. 66-73.
[3] P. Amirshahi, M. Kavehrad, “Broadband Access over Medium and Low Voltage
Powerlines and use of White Light Emitting Diodes for Indoor Communications,” IEEE
Consumer
Communications & Networking Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, January 2006. Optical
Wireless Communications Using White LED Lighting”.
[4] O‟Brien and Marcos Katz, “Short-Range Optical Wireless Communications”,
Wireless World Research.
[5] T.D.C. Little, P. Dib, K. Shah, N. Barraford, and B. Gallagher, “Using LED Lighting
for Ubiquitous Indoor Wireless Networking”, IEEE International Conference on Wireless
& Mobile Computing, 10.1109/WiMob.2008.57.
[6] D. C. O‟Brien, “Indoor optical wireless communications: recent developments and
future challenges,” in Free-Space Laser Communications IX, San Diego, CA, USA,
2009, pp. 74640B-12.
72
[7] M.G. Craford, “LEDs challenge the incandescents,” IEEE Circuits Devices Mag.,
vol. 8, pp. 24-29, Sept. 1992.
[8] Y. Tanaka et al., “Indoor Visible Light Data TransmissionSystem Utilizing White
LED Lights,” IEICE Trans. Commun., vol. E86-B, no. 8, Aug. 2003, pp. 2440–54.
[9] Spiros Louvros and David Fuschelberger, “VLC Technology for Indoor LTE
Planning.”
[10] Prof. A. Sudan, “Performance Enhancement of Data Communication through Visible
Light Communication Using On Off Keying,” February 2013.
73

PHS Based Online Vehicle Tracking and Locking System

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

PHS Based Online Vehicle Tracking and Locking System

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

PROJECT REPORT

“PHS BASED ONLINE VEHICLE

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements

For the award of the degree

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ______________ ENGINEERING

________ COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AFFILIATED TO ___________ UNIVERSITY

This is to certify that the dissertation work entitled “PHS BASED

The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of

We express our earnest gratitude to our internal guide, Assistant Professor

___________ ___________ __________

___________ ___________ __________

Chapter 4: Block Diagram

Chapter 5: Block Diagram Explanation

Chapter 7: Circuit Diagram & Explanation

Chapter 8: Applications & Future Enhancement

8.2: Future Enhancement

Chapter 9: Advantages & Disadvantages

Chapter 10: Result/Conclusion

Chapter 11: General Components

Chapter 12: PCB Designing & Soldering Techniques

12.1: PCB Designing

12.2: Soldering Techniques

Chapter 13: References

MAIN FEATURES OF THE PROJECT:

TRANSFORME RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR GND

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

 Power supply unit

The Atmel AT89 series is an Intel 8051-compatible family of 8

 IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER:

 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

IC1 IC1 +12V

1. Step-down Transformer: The transformer rating is 230V AC at Primary and 12-0-12V,

The input of ULN 2003 is TTL-compatible open-collector outputs. As each of these

1 16 N/C N/C N/C N/C N/C

5 4 3 14 RL1 RL2 RL3 RL4 RL5

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS 555 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATORS

SENSOR PIR Sensor 1

IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM & ITS DESCRIPTION

PCM IR TRANSMITTER IC M708/708A

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IR TRANSMITTER

Parts List Of IR Receiver:

Power Supply Section IR Receiver Section Driver Section

ATMEL 89C51 Technical Description

The ATmel 89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with

 Compatible with MCS-51 Products

LCD DATA WRITE WAVEFORM

Shift Register LCD Data Write

LCD Contrast Circuit

Liquid crystal panel service life 100,000 hours minimum at 25 oC -10 oC

1. This system can be implemented in industries.

8.2 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

We can implement with ARM processor for faster response.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

1. High-speed wireless data transmissions

There are two types of resistors available. They are :

 RESISTOR COLOUR CODING

Fig. 1: Colour code for Resistor

There are two general categories of variable resistors:

Physically a capacitor has conducting plates separated by an insulator or the dielectric.

There are two types of Electrolytic capacitors:

_____ _ ______

_____ _ ______