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Lecture 1

 Org psych is the application of psychological principles to the workplace.

 Elevator pitch- risk ay to des ri e org psy h. org psy h spe ialise in analysing people at
work and organisations devising strategies to recruit, motivate, develop, change and inspire.
 Taylorism- take job and break it down into parts and then you can specialise in the parts.
 Robert Yerkes- probably first IO psych and brought it to WW1. Assessing recruits for army.
What positions would they have? PTSD.
 Hawthorne Studies; motivation. People went into workplace and improved lighting to see if
their morale would improve.
 Main Themes
o Treating people fairly
 Selecting people for jobs
 Providing training
 Rewarding promotions
 Addressing harassment and bullying.
o Making jobs more interesting
 Designing jobs people will find satisfying
 Rewardsing work
 Safe, efficient work areas )Human Factors)
 Motivating employees to perform
 Creating teams that work well together
 Combingin diverse talents and perspectives.
 Team building.
o Helping people be more productive
 Desigingin work pattersn that enhance effienctn behaviour
 Providing skills training and development. Do they have the skills to enable
them to do certain tasks?
 Helping to meet challenges of competition.
 Moving past downsizing.
 Key Conecpts- several different levels
o Individual employee
o Individual works in a team/group (is group functioning well together?)
o Group in organisation (is org productive?)
 Scientist- practitioner?
o All professional a ti ities ondu ted or prg psy h should e ased on s ientifi ally
alidates kno ledge
 Decisions need to be based in data
 Form hypothesis about problem and test them
 Use valid and reliable assessments
 Contribute to research and development to imporive the quality and
effectiveness
 4 kinds of org Research (PROBLEM WITH ORG RESEARCH: often conducted at universities but
organisations are out in the real world)

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 WORKER JOB FIT: HOW PARTICULAR CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSON FIT WITH

CHARACTERISTIC OF JOB.
 JOB ANALYSIS: is a systematic practive used for defining a job. (describes the job not the
person)
o Specifies tasks, duties and responsibultues in job
o Then extended to person specification: e.g. skills, characteristics etc.
 Job analysis is the core of IO psych.
 Job analysis is important because
o Defining criteria
o Selection
o Restructuring
o Job appraisals
o Legal obligations
o HR planning
o Training and development
o Classifying jobs.
 KSAO’s
o Knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics
 Primary function is to identify the required characteristics of the successful
worker for a specific job
o SOMETIMES KSATI’s
 Knowledge, skills, abilities, temperament and interests.
 Skills can be trained.
 PERFORMING A JOB ANALYSIS
o 2 main groups
 Job oriented methods
 Conditions of work
 Results of work
 What the worker achieves rather than the actual behaviour
 Worker oriented methods
 Focus on worker behaviours
 Establish generalised descriptions of behaviour
 Quantitative Methods
o CIT: critical inciedent Technique.
 Identifies specific behaviours
 First used by air force in WWII
 Identified with interviews, workshops and questionnaires.
o Repertory Grid Technique
 Generation of suiable incumbents )high and low performers)


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Lecture 2

EMOTIONS ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR AT WORK

 Emotions at work
o Affect: a state that is consciously assessable. Feeling= affect. Mood= affective state.
Descriptive term of feeling.
o Emotionas are a reaction to an event. Situational. Fluctuate moment to moment-
short term
 Positive vs negative affect in tone
o Positive affect: denotes experiences of pleasurable feelings and positive
engagement
o Negative affect: denotes experiences of unpleasant feelings and negative
engagement.
 High arousal- low affect= anxiety
 Factor Analysis- talking about big 5 personality traits. Using stats to find out what reflects
constructs.
 Trait level- people who have negative affect- e.g. more mentally unstable and neurotic- tend
to experience more anxiety and depression. Tend to experience more work stress. Perceive
things that happen in environment as negative. Can be confounding variable. Perceive things
as negative therefore experience negativity. more health complaints. Lower job satisfaction.
Higher turnover.
 Trait level- people who experience positive affect is associated with social activity, exercise,
satisfaction and commitment, turnover intentions, higher job and task performance.
 Miller types of emotions at work
o Emotional Labor: inauthentic emotion in interaction with customers and clients.
(draining). People who deep level act- try to make themselves feel the emotions
they are supposed to display are less burntout than people who act only on the
surface.
o Emotional work: authentic emotion in interaction. If you can display authentic
emotion at work each day its invigirating.
o Emotion with work: emotion stemming from interactions. Any emotion related to
working with co-workers. E.g. conflict in team.
o Emotion at work: emotion from non work sources experiences in the workplace. E.g.
fight with kids on the way to work but still pissed off at work.
o Emotiona toward work: any emotion which is targeted at work. E.g. task that day is
complex and frustrating, might have negative feelings toward that task that day.
 Affective Events Theory: identifying how important emotions are at work on a day to day
basis compared to general job attitudes. Model identified that emotions felt on a day to day
basis lead to eventual feeling about their general job.
 ATTITUDES: evaluative statements or judgements concerning obkects, people or events.
o Like or dislike- affect componement.
o Cognitive element- belief about object or person.
o Behavioural- intention to behave in way that is consistent with affective and
og iti e o po e t. E.g. do ’t like jop , its ori g, so ill do othi g.

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 Three important assumption that underlie attitude

o 1. Hypothetical construct- not real thing its something we describe to help us
understand how people think about things. not tangible its how we understand
peoples feelings.
o 2. One dimensional- attitude is about one sort of belief or one intenion to behave in
a certain way. If more, then theres more attitudes
o 3. Attitudes to lead to behaviour. Relationship between two intentions is as high
as .6 or .7.
 Study of attitudes form 1950s.
o How theyre formed, affective copmnenent is hard to change once formed. This is
because this comes about through a process of conditioning. = daily experiences link
and form a whole attitude.
 Does behaviour always follow from attitudes
o Cognitive dissonance: not always that attitude lead to behaviour. Sometimes reverse
is true. Feeling of discomfort.
o Dissonance: incompatible. If strong enough, either attitude or behaviour will change.
 If someone is so uncomfortable they might withdraw, engage in
counterproductive behaviours or leave. OTHERWISE, theyd have to change
attitude about work. If no positive elements provided, withdrawl behaviours
will be engaged.
 Desire to reduce dissonance depends on
o Importance of elements (self determination theory)
o Degree of individual influence: more able they are to resolve
the more they will try
o Rewards revolved: if more rewards to work out issue they
will be more motivated to work it out.
 Moderating variables
o Most powerful moderators of the attitude-behaviour relationship are:
 Predicting behaviour from attitude.
o Important attitudes have a strong relationship to behaviour
o Closer match between attitude and behaviour the stronger the relationship.
o More frequently someone expresses an attitude or someone else expresses attitude
around them, the better predictor as its normative.
o High social pressure reduce the relationship and may cause dissonance.
o Attitudes based on personal experience are stronger predictors.
 Psychological Empowerment: degree of influence you have ober job and how meaningful.
o 4 Relational and Motivations Aspects: if have all 4 will have positive reaction toward
job
 1. Meaning: work they do is significant.
 2. Competence: feeling that they can do their job well. Can meet demansds
of challenges they face
 3. Self determination: having control or influence about work
 4. Impact: feel as thought hey have some way to influence organisations
decisions and ruels etc.

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o Psych empowerment: EMPOWERMENT RESEARCH BY KOBERG: 612 tech,

professional and managerial hospital employees:
 people who were with the company longer, more empowerment- probably
due to being with the company longer they have worked out how to impact
the company more they understand the company. Those who said leader
was more approachable has more empowerment. Work group was good
had worth were empowered. Higher up their position has more control so
more empowered.
 People who were empowered were less likely to leave, more
turnover, more effective, more satisfied
o JOB ATTITUDE: JOB INVOLVEMENT
 How identified an empyee feels with their job.
 Work more hours, more meaningful. More involved has high
relationship = .45.
 Tied up in self worth.
o ORG COMMITMENT
 Identifying with a particular org and its goals while wishing to
maintain a membership in the origanisaiton.
o THREE COMPONEMENT MODEL
 1. Affective: generally like org, positive about org
 2. Continuence commitment: staying because pay is
better. Economic value
 3. Normative- moral or ethical obligations. E.g. grad
position gave you a chance os will stay a little
longer.feel as though they have to.
o Highly correlated with job satisfaction.
 Socialisation process: people come into a workplace and learn what the norms are and what
the expectations are in an organisation. Interview- tell story about what its like to work in an
org.
 JOB ATTITUDE: pervcieved org support (POS): degree to which worker thinks org values their
work and cares about their well being. Observed with rewards are fair, involved in decision
making, and their supervisors are supportive.
o High POS related to higher Organisational Citizenship Behaviours (OCB); if theyre
valued more and have more POS they are more likely to go above and beyond doing
extra jobs etc.
 JOB ATTITUDE: EMPOLOYEE ENGAGEMENT: degree to which the satisfaction with and
enthusiasm for the job. DIFFERENT TO ATTITUDE: ENGAGEMENT IS ENTHUSIAMS. ATTITUDE
IS JUST LIKE OR DISLIKE.
o Approaches
 1. Harness to role: cognitive, emotional and physical. Practical engagement.
 Positive and fulfilling: absorption (happily working so time flys), vigor (enjoy
work so its exciting so thave high arousal) and dedication )proud of their
wrok).
 WHY DO WE NEED ALL THESE ATTITUDES- ARE THEY DISTINCT?

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o Sometimes need to tap into a specific attitude to look at what specific attitude it
produces.
o Some attitudes might be more important than others in some contexts
 JOB SATISFACTION: individuals attitude towards his or her job. (came about after Hawthorne
studies).
o Measured in 2 levels
 1. Global: overall broad reaction to the job. Reflects oberall feelings.
 2. Facet: lots of questions about job specifically. More about what their
feelings are toward individual aspects of their jobs.
o Several ways to measure job satisfaction
 Job description index
 Job satisfaction survey
 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
o Theoretical Approaches to JS
 2 factor theory: management lit
 Subtractive theory: someones job satisfaction is based on their ideal
satisfaction against what they actually have
 Instrumentality theory: if job is fulfilling someones needs and theyre being
halle ges that they a eet, the they’ll e satisfied
 Social influence: if in a group or org theres a norm, itll influence everyone
and everyone will be satisfied
 Equity: will judge how much theyre putting into job against how much
theyre getting out. If same, satisfaction
 Theory or work adjustment: if work is fulfilling, people will become more
adjusted and have more job satisfaction.
o Influence job satisfaction
 Characteristics of job
 Feedback
 Job control
o Consequences:
 Less likely to leave
 Is a happy worker a productive worker??
o Association is not very big
 Possible explanations
 Research and Measurement issues: Might not be measuring
performance accurately.
 Moderator effects: other variables that explain the relationship
between satisfaction and performance. E.g. might depend on
whether work is individual based or group. If group based, might not
matter how satisfied an individual is.
o Should e e tryi g to ake orkers ore happy? Its ot so ethi g that’s utually
exclusive. Theres certain levers that we can pull that can make job more satisfying.
o Research ahs shown that these help
 Creating jobs that are intrinsically interesting and important
 Equitably linking: rewards and fair pay

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 Setting clear and challing goals; knowing whats expected.

 Outcomes of job satisfactions
o Less absenteeism
o Customer satisfaction- satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and
loyalty
o OCB: fairness
o Turnover: satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
 Depends on
 Economic environment
 Org actions taken to retain high performers and to weed out lower
performers
o Workplace deviance: dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionise, abuse
substances, steal, be tardy and withdraw.
 RESPONSE TO JOB DISSATISFACTION
o Can be active or passice
o Destructive or construvive.
o 4 pieces to it
 1. Exit: behaviour directed to ward leaving the org
 2. Voice: active and constructive attempts to improve conditions
 3. Neglect: allowing conditions to worsen
 4. Loyalty: passively waiting for conditions to improve
o Sile t eha iours ea org is ’t getti g feed a k so a t ake positi e ha ge.
Satisfaction surveys help to INFORM MANAGEMENT, EXIT INTERVIEWS!!!- leaving
job so interview asking did we do something wrong or personal.
 WITHDRAWL BEHAVIOURS
o LATENESS
o ABSENTEEISM
o TURNOVER
 CALLED THE UNFOLDING MODEL
o UNFOLDING MODEL OF TURNOVER
 Explaining why people leave.
 1. Economic: whats happening in market that makes people seek other
alternative
 2. Psych: whats happening within org that would drive people to leave.
 Psychological contracts: when we enter an employment relationship, there are somethings
like pay that we enter into on paper. Others are expectations like getting feedback about
how to do well.
 Violation of psych contract: likely to leave organisation. Most of turnover soon after being
employed is generally because of psych contract breach
o Reasons
 Reneging (clear that employer offered something but took it back) vs.
congruence (misunderstanding between what was meant by promise) vs
disruption (expectations actually change).
 Distrust, dissatisfaction, high turnover and low org commitment
 Deviant behaviours

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 Sometimes we can handle some psych contract breach if theres other things. If they have
reneged and they explain why, might forgive. Personality variables: some are more equity
sensitive. Some people put a lot of energy into reciprocity roles
 Organisation justice perceptions:
o Distributive justice: fair in distribution of good. Fair bonuses and training etc
o Procedural justice: fairness of processes used. Some people might get extras
o Interactional justice: treatment of workers
 If satisfied with this, more likey to let it go if theres been contract breach.
 OCB: when psych contract is fulfilled, see more OCBs.
o See more OCBs when they perceive fairness, good financial attitudes, psych contract
has been met and more cooperative rather than competitive.
 How do org psychs manage attitudes
o Attitude surveys
o Job designs
o Personnel selection
o Change management
o Training
o Performance appraisal.

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Lecture 3: Motivation

 What is Motivatoin- 3 parts

o Direction: what you choose to do or focus effort on. Choices
o Intensity: effort. How much effort you put into target of motivation
o Persistence: how long you sustain the effort.
 Basic Definition: set of energetic forces.
 What is motivation: What we choose to direct our efforts towards with some sort of
persistence.
 Why do we care about motivation? Determines whether group or person will be productive.
 Maslows Needs Heirachy
o People are driven by basic needs that they ssatisfy, they move up the heirachy. Basic
rate of pay or security- then once satisfied, supervisor might be more important so
seek better relationship to satisfy belonging.
 Implications and evidence: support that basic needs must be met for people
to be satisfied.
 ERG THEORY
o Extension to maslow
o Got rid of heirachy and focuses on 3 needs
 Existence: security and basic needs
 Relatedness: belonging
 Growth: satisfy need for achievement and development.
 Support: lacks empirical support.
 Mcgregor Theory X and Theory Y
o 2 different types of managers, the way they think determines treatment of staff
which determines staff outcome
 X; leader assumes that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoiv
responsibility. Always on their case
 Y: leader assumes that employees are creative, seek responsibility and can
exercise direction.
 X= authoratiarian. Results in controlling culture
 Y= developmental. Nicer work environment.
 Herzberg Motivation and Hygiene Theory distinction between hygiene and motivators.
o Hygiene: factors like conditions, salary. Things do not make people more satisfied
just less disatified
o Motivators: recognition, opportunities for growth.
 Herz erg KITA ki k i the ass . Ki k i the ass is ’t otivatio eing
observed its movement. Motivation cant be seen physically its inside the
person.
 2 Factor Theory (motivation – hygiene).
o Theory fails to account for individual differences and situational variables.needs to
consider cultural and professional differences. NOT GOOD AT PREDICTING
ANYTHING.
 RECENT THEORIES
 McCellands Theory of Needs

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o More empirical support than maslow. Focus on 3 needs and people who had them
fulfilled tended to perfom better. Needs:
 Need for achievement: excel (tend to perform better when have a high drive
for eed . Do ’t eed to have high a hieve e t fo ud to e good a ager
 Need for power: like to have control (tend to be good managers).
 Need for affiliation: sense of belonging fulfilled.
 Not in a heirachy. All simultaneous.
 Self determination theory: more extensive. 3 needs that everyone has. What differs is the
degree to which they are satisfied
o Autonomy: need to have control of choice.
o Competence: need to have opportunities to do well. Or things that you can succeed
at
o Relatedness: need to be atounf others and blong.
 Needs are satisfied differently. Its all DOMAIN SPECIFIC.
 SDT- continuum of motivation.
 Cognitive Evaluation Theory- SDT mini theory
o If you give employees extrinsic rewards for wanted behaviour, if its been enjoyable
or motivating to them previously, it will demotivate them. E.g. reading on vacation is
fun, but once assigned reading for class, its unbearable.
 Lit has found extrinsic rewards can make jobs less enjoyable but only when
the reward is to do with coercive and contolled because its based on
performance.
 Self-concordance theory/ goal content theory: sometimes offering extrinsic reward wont be
so bad if the person values the reward. Wont undermine enjoyment or motivation.
 Equity Theory: economic background: idea that people are looking at input and output of
work. Effort put in and what they get out of it. Compare it.
o If these are equal, employees will be motivated and perform well. If inequity, might
be disengaged and counter productive behaviours
o Motivated to get equity so if theyre putting lots in and not getting enough out,
they’ll stop putti g so u h i .
o How do we decide whether what we are getting out is equal to input. Compare with
other people and draw on past experiences.
 Referent: comparison point to determine whether theres equity. Can
compare themselves against their own previour postion. Or can compare to
someone else in a similar role.
 Self vs other.
o Input: effort, time put in, loyalty, heart and soul, reliable,
consistency
o Output: pay, bonus, recognition, reputation, praise,
enjoyment, responsibility.
 Lit focuses manily on extrinsic things. E.g. pay.
 3 outcomes
o 1. Equity:
o 2. Inequity: ovverrewarded. Guilt
and shame

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3. Underrewarded: putting in more

o
than someone else and not getting
back as much.
 Referent is ambiguous:
limitation.
 Expectancy Theory: based on TOLMANS WORK. ECONOMIC. Argues that employees will be
motivated more when they believe the effort they put in will actually lead to more
recognition and better performance leading to reward. Also, if the reward is important to
them. (3 parts).
o 1. Expectancy: if I increase my effort it will lead to greater performance
o 2. Instrumentality: greater performance will receive a gratifying outcome with more
recognition.
o 3. Valence: whether you value the reward on offer. Ca be positive or negative
valence.
 Effort- performance: expectancy
 Performance- reward: instrumentality
 Reward- personal goal/ personal value: valence
 Economic Man: Vroom suggests all individuals are aware of all
choices of action.
 Reinforcement Theory (enemy of SDT): Based on operant conditioning. when a need exists
we are motivated to work hard and achieve goals to satisfy needs. Positively reinforcement
makes it occur more often. E.g. if there is incentive like pay check, motivated to perform
and work harder
o 3 variables
 Stimulus: also pay. Conditioned stimulus.
 Response: working hard and performing
 Reward: pay etc
o People need to be in an environment that has positive reinforcers.
o Effects depend on scheduale of reinforcement
 Monthy paycheck
 Daily bonuses
 Working piece-rate on assembly line.
 Research shows that if you reward people all the time they stop
performing. Reinforces Self determination theory as if given all the
time is seen as coercive and controlling. If varied, tend to perform
quite well and reward is happy surprise now nda then.
o Problem: when applied to work place, most evidence is from pidgeons. Little
research has been done with employees. Research that has been done has found
support for the variable interval scale of rewards.
 Does ’t take i to a ou t for i dividual differe es: does the perso value
the reward?
 Does ’t look at lo g term effects.
 Does it apply to the working world?

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 Goal setting Theory: has most empirical support and used most!!focuses on one task and
one task performance. If we set a goal to attain performance, then its likely youll achieve
other conditions in order to get ot that task
o Goals must be specific, difficult and accepted.
o Person is affected because it directs attention, energises, sncourages and new
strategies are developed, new ways to get work done.
o Leads to increased performance.
o Feedback given.
 SPECIFIC AND DIFFICULT GOALS PRODUCE HIGHER PERFORMANCE,
COMPARED TO VAGUE OR EASY GOALS.
o GOAL SETTING THEORY SUPPORT
 Goals within an individuals ability increase performance, gials that are not
within their ability lead to diminished performance.
o Self efficacy: individuals belief that they can achieve something.
 Lit says that someone has task specific self efficacy, they are more likely to
acheieve goal. Confidence.
 NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH SELF ESTEEM: self esteem is about
liking youself.
 WHAT IS JOB DESIGN
o Characteristics of jobs. The physical and psychological job characteristics in order to
produce optimum performance and well being.
 Person- environment fit.
 Way job is designed affects peoples performance. (Taylorism- piece of work
that needs to be done, break it down into bits for people to do, one person
does one part, become efficient but monotonous.)
 WONG and CAMPION: effective performance = jobs in mid range of
stimulation.
 MELAMED ET AL: workers who had repetitive tasks on daily basis in long
term had more strain and were more burntout. Underload = stress. No
motivation.
 Therefore: job design = optimise jobs = increased motivation and
satisfaction and performance.
 Job characteristics model: hackman and Oldham: key job characteristic that make people
motivated and whether these lead to increased satisfaction and performance
o 5 core job dimensions
 Skill variability
 Task identity: knowing what you do is important.
 Task significance: broad term that generally what you do is significant in
workplace
 Task autonomy: experienced responsibility of work outcome
 Feedback: knowledge of results
 These dimensions lead to psych states being fulfilled
 Become motivated and grow.
o Job diagnostic survey.
o Individual job redesign methods

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 Job rotation
 Job enlargement
 Job enrichment
 Flexitime
 Jon sharing
 telecommuting

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