CROWN-2019 (Fifth Impact)

Fifth Impact
Introduction (crown and bridge classification)
Definition of terms:
1) Prosthesis: any artificial replacement of a missing or absent

part of human body
2) Prosthodontics: branch of dentistry pertaining to the
restoration and maintenance of oral function, comfort,
appearance and health of the patient by the restoration of
natural teeth, or the replacement of missing teeth with
artificial substitutes.
3) Removable prosthodontics: branch of prosthodontics
concerned with the replacement of missing teeth by
removable artificial substitutes.
4) Fixed prosthodontics: branch of prosthodontics concerned
with the replacement of missing teeth by non-removable
artificial substitutes.
5) Restoration: a broad term applied to any material or
prosthesis that restores or replaces lost tooth structure,
teeth or oral tissues.
6) Crown; artificial restoration of the coronal portion of
natural tooth.
7) Bridge: it's a non-removable prosthesis of a metallic and or
non-metallic nature, spanning a space in the dental arch and
firmly anchored at one or both ends to the adjacent teeth.
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Fixed prosthodontics includes:

§ Crown
§ Bridge "fixed partial denture"
§ Inlay: doesn’t cover the cusps
§ Onlay: covers one or more but not all cusps
§ Overlay: covers all cusps "
> endo-crown: overlay reaching pulp chamber"
§ Post and core
§ Implants
Classification of fixed prosthodontics:
- Crown and
Bridges
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Notes:
§ Intra radicular prosthesis: in endodontically treated tooth
formed of:
1) Post
2) Core
3) Crown
Types of posts:
1) Attached one piece (post crown)
2) Dethatched 2 pieces (custom made post)
"post + core / + crown"
3) Dethatched3 pieces (readymade post)
§ Post crown: artificial restoration of the entire coronal

portion of the tooth and is retained in position mainly by a
post inserted into a prepared root canal.
§ Core: center or base of any structure
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Crown:
artificial replacement of an existing tooth structure
Indications:
§ Heavily fracture tooth
§ Heavily discolored tooth
§ Badly decayed tooth
§ Heavy attrition of teeth
Classification:
according to coverage:
Full coverage (veneer) crown:

§ Covers all surfaces (5 surfaces)
§ Better life time guarantee "better retention, resistance and
durability"
Partial coverage (veneer) crown:
Covers less than five surfaces
Better esthetics and more conservation of natural tooth
structure
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àFull coverage crowns are classified acc. To material into:

1) Metallic "full veneer metal crown":
-it's also called cast crown,
-it's an artificial metallic crown constructed to fit over the
whole coronal portion of the tooth.
§ The metal may be: → Nobel metal: better esthetics
→ Base metal: better strength
§ Advantages: strength and less teeth preparation.
§ disadvantages: esthetics.
2) Non-metallic "jacket crown"

§ It's a crown that covers and restores the whole
coronal portion of the tooth, and it's constructed
from non-metallic materials.
§ It can be made of
→ Polymers (acryl / composite) → temporary
crown
→ Ceramics →final crown
Advantages: esthetics,
disadvantages: expensive, less conservation of tooth
structure
3) Combination:
§ Veneered metal crown: it's a full metallic crown with
only one or two surfaces covered with porcelain.
"porcelain fused to metal"
§ Full veneered metal crown: it's a full metallic crown
with all surfaces covered with porcelain "metal
ceramic crown"
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àFull coverage crowns are classified acc. To retention into:

1) Complete encircling of the preparation
2) Post in the root canal "post crown"
→ Post crown: artificial restoration of the entire coronal
portion of the tooth and is retained in position mainly by
a post inserted into a prepared root canal.
3) Combination "post jacket crown":
→ Post jacket crown: it's a jacket crown constructed on a
partial or full, metal or non-metal core, such core is
retained by a post fitted into a prepared root canal.
àPartial coverage crowns are classified acc to surfaces

covered into:
1) Three quarter crown
§ It's a partial coverage crown covering all the surfaces of
the tooth leaving the facial surfaces unprepared for
conservative and esthetic reasons
§ Retention: by proximal grooves, lingual to line angles
§ Applied to all teeth "universal" especially upper
premolars
2) Reversed three quarter crown:
§ It's a modified form of the "three quarter crown" in
which the lingual surface (instead of facial) is left
unprepared
§ Retention: by grooves buccal to line angles
§ Applied to lower premolars with severe lingual tilling
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3) Mac boyle retainer:

§ It's a modified three quarter crown with its retention
derived from grooves at the labial line angles instead of
the proximal surfaces.
§ Applied to lower anteriors for better retention
4) One half crown:
§ It's a modified form of the three quarter crown in which
one proximal surface with the adjacent halves of buccal
and lingual surfaces and most of the occlusal surface are
covered, while the other half is uncovered
§ Retention by buccal and lingual grooves
§ Applied to lower molars
5) Seven eight crown:
§ A partial coverage crown with all surfaces prepared
except the MB cusp of upper molars
§ Retention by grooves in mesial and buccal aspects
6) Pin ledge retainer:
§ A partial veneer retainer that is retained by pins
prepared on the palatal surface of the tooth "2 pins
incisally and 1 cervically"
§ Applied in upper anterior "canine to canine" for splinting
§
Partial coverage crowns are classified acc. to retention
into:
1) By grooves: all except pin ledge and macboyle
2) By pins: pin ledge retainer
3) By partial enclapsing the preparation: mac boyle retainer
4) By combination
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Bridge: "Fixed partial denture"

Components:
§ Pontic: it's that part of the bridge that replaces the
missing tooth and restores both function and appearance
§ Retainer: it's that part of the bridge which retains the
bridge to the abutments
o Abutment: it's the prepared natural tooth which
carries and supports the bridge at one or both ends.
§ Connector: it's that part of bridge which joins or
connects the pontic to the retainer.
Notes:
Types of abutments:
1) Primary abutment: the tooth next to the missing tooth
2) Secondary abutment: in case the primary abutment is weak
3) Remote abutment: the abutment is far from the missing
tooth
4) Pier abutment: missing teeth on both sides "mesial and
distal" of the abutment
Classification:
→ According to material
1) Metallic
2) Non metallic
3) Combination
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→ According to retention:
1) Simple: one single type of bridge

→ Fixed-fixed bridge:
It's the bridge in which the pontic is joined at both ends t
abutment teeth by rigid connector
→ Fixed – supported bridge
It's the bridge in which the pontic is joined at one end to
the abutment by rigid connector while the other end is
supported on the abutment by a rest "non-rigid connector"
to allow some movement between them.
* Non rigid connector:
→ rest → "pontic" and rest seat → "retainer" → non
persition attachment
→ key → "pontic" and key way → "retainer" → persition
attachment
àRemovable bridge
It's the bridge in which each connector is formed of two parts,

one is fixed to the retainer, and the other soldered to the
pontic and the bridge can be removed by the patient for
cleansing purpose
* Abutment → retainer "flat with no anatomy [copings]"
permanently attached then bride is placed above it – temporarily
cemented "discopic crown → bridge + copings"
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→ Fixed – free bridge (cantilever):
It's the bridge in which the pontic is fixed and takes its support
from one or double retainers at one end only while the other end
is unsupported and free.
Adv.: conservation of natural tooth structure
Disadv.: poor force distribution "toe reaction"

Mainly used in missing laterals "due to strong abutment → canine
and no strong forces falling on it"
→ Spring – cantilever bridge:

It's the bridge in which the pontic takes its support from a
remote abutment by a resilient curved arm on the palate
"because the abutment near it is weak"
Disadv." Discomfort of patient and may fall

Adv.: good distribution of forces.
→ Adhesive bridge "merland bridge":
It's the bridge that gets all of its retention from cement
"retainers are palatal or proximal"
Adv.: conservation of natural tooth structure and esthetics
Disadv.: retention resistance is weak (may fall) so the best type

of cement used is resin cement.
Indication: one tooth is missing only
2) Compound bridge:
It's a combination type bridge composed of two or more of
simple bridges.
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→ According to site
1. Anterior bridge: extends from one canine on one side to the

other canine in the same arch "missing centrals / laterals"
Unilateral: two or three unit bridge, which doesn’t

cross the midline of the arch, it's either right or
left bridge
Bilateral bridge: it's the bridge that crosses the

midline
2. Posterior bridge: begins after the canine area "missing
premolars / molars"
3. Complex bridge "antero: posterior": extends from the

anterior segment of the dental arch to the posterior one
passing by the canine area. "missing canines".
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Instruments
Instruments and equipment for tooth preparation
Introduction:
Dental equipment: an installation or an implement for undertaking

various dental performances.
Dental instrument: a tool or device used for a specific type of work or

procedure.
- To develop an ordinary procedure of tooth preparation, specific

rules must be followed:
1. The area of the tooth being restored must be in full vision.
2. The access to the limits of the preparation must be accomplished
with good selected instruments and equipment.
3. Since the tooth is a hard substance, the instrument must be
sufficiently hard to resist fracture and to grind enamel and
dentin.
 so the choice of dental instruments is made according to:
- needs.
- skills.
- personal preferences.
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Instruments
cutting instruments:
- definition:
they are instruments used in dentistry to cut , shape, plane and

smoothen dental structures.
- They are divided into:

a. Hand cutting instruments.
b. Rotary (powered) cutting instruments.
A. Hand cutting instruments:
Initially, the removal and shaping of the tooth structure were

accomplished entirely by hand cutting instruments. However, modern
high speed equipment has eliminated the need for many hand
instrument for tooth preparation.
- Materials used for manufacture of hand cutting instruments:

 carbon steel (harder than stainless steel but when unprotected
will corrode)
 stainless steel
 carbide
 alloys: such as nickel, chromium, cobalt.
- Classification of hand cutting instruments:

They are classified according to mode of use into:
1. Cutting: such as excavators, chisel and enamel hatchet
2. Non cutting: such as condenser, mirrors, explorers and probes.
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Instruments
- Design of hand cutting instruments:

They are composed of three parts:
1. Handle (shaft)
2. Shank
3. Blade (or nib in non cutting instruments).
 The handle:
- it’s the part grasped in the operator’s hand.
- It’s commonly eight sided and serrated to facilitate control
 The shank:
- It connects the handle to the working end
- It’s smooth, rounded and tapered
- It may have one or more bends to avoid twisting of the instrument
in use, when force is applied, to facilitate access for the cutting
edge.
 blade (or nib):

-it’s the working point, which is either single or double-ended
cutting edge.
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Instruments
B. Rotary (powered) cutting equipment:

These instruments use a replaceable bladed or abrasive
instrument, held in a rotary hand piece, usually powered by
compressive air.
They are formed of:

1. Hand pieces
2. Cutting tools
 The hand piece:
it’s a device for holding rotating instrument, transmitting the

power to them and for positioning them intra-orally.
They have two basic types: (according to shape)
1. Straight hand piece (a long straight steel bur is used with it)
2. Contra-angle hand piece (has two angles to place the bur nearly
vertical to the long axis of the straight part of hand piece).
- hand pieces are powered by:

1. Direct: air turbine
2. Indirect: electric motor
((the speed range is calculated as revolution per minute ”rpm” ))
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Instruments
Recent advances in hand pieces:
1. Allow for repeated sterilization.

2. Smaller head size.
3. Lower noise levels.
4. Fiber-optic lightening of the cutting site.
NB.
All angle hand pieces have had an air-water spray to provide cooling,
cleansing and improved visibility.
Rotary speed ranges:
1) Low (slow) speed: below 12.000 rpm

2) Medium (intermediate) speed: 12.000 – 200.000 rpm
3) High (ultra-high) above 200.000 rpm
Disadvantages of low speed cutting:
- Ineffective.
- Time consuming.
- Requires a heavy force application, which results in heat production
at the operating site.
- Vibrations causing patient discomfort.
- Burs do not last long and they tend to roll out of the tooth.
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Instruments
Uses of low speed range:
- Cleaning teeth.
- Occasional caries
- Excavation
- Finishing and polishing procedures.
Advantages of high speed cutting:
- Used for efficient tooth preparation and removing old restorations

- Provide faster removal of tooth structures.
- Less pressure.
- Less vibration.
- Less heat generation.
- The operator has better control and easier operation.
- Instruments last longer.
Other techniques for tooth preparation is:
Air abrasive technique: depends on the rapid continuous air driven

abrasive action of aluminum hydroxide particles, but several clinical
problems preluded their general acceptance, such as loss of tactile
sense, lack of visibility, dust inhalation and inability to produce well
defined preparations.
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Instruments
cutting tools (rotary cutting instruments):
They are manufactured in hundreds of sizes, shapes and types.
This variation is a result of the need for specialized designs for

particular clinical application.
 Common design:
Each instrument consists of three parts:
1. Shank
2. Neck
3. Head
 Shank:
It’s the part that fits into the hand piece.
It has three common classes:
1. Straight hand piece shank

2. Latch-type shank for angle hand piece
3. Friction grip shank for angle hand piece
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Instruments
Uses:
1. Straight hand piece instruments are now rarely used for

preparing teeth, they are used for finishing and polishing
restorations in lab.
2. Latch type instruments are used at low and medium speed ranges
for finishing tooth preparation.
3. The friction grip shank design was developed for use with high
speed hand piece, for tooth preparation. the design is smaller in
length for better access to the posterior regions of the mouth.
 Neck:
It’s the intermediate portion that connects the head to the shank.
It’s main function is to transmit forces to the head.
 Head:
It’s the working part of the instrument, the cutting edges that
perform shaping of tooth structure.
They are classified according to the mechanism of cutting onto:
1 Bladed instruments (dental burs)

2 Abrasive instruments
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Instruments
Dental burs:
- They are rotary cutting instruments that have bladed cutting

heads.
- They are made of: steel or carbide.
- Steel burs dull rapidly  at high speed
 when they cut in enamel.
- carbide is stiffer and stronger, but more brittle.

- They are designated according to:
1. Size (number given to the head diameter, in tenth of a
millimeter).
2. Shape (round, inverted cone, pear, straight fissure, and tapered
fissure)
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Instruments
Abrasive instruments:
- They are used for surface reduction (abrade tooth surface)

- They are divided into:
a. Diamond abrasive instruments
b. Rubber stones
c. Unmounted instruments
A. Diamond abrasive instruments:
- They have had great clinical importance because of their long life
and high effectiveness in cutting enamel and dentin.
- They consist of three parts:
1. Metal blank
2. Powdered diamond abrasive (covering the metal blank)
3. Metallic bonding material (holds the diamond powder onto the
blank)
- Classification: according to
 head shapes and sizes:
more than 200 shapes and sizes are currently marked, so they are
selected from a catalogue
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Instruments
 diamond particles:
the clinical performance of instruments depends on :
1. Size
2. Spacing
3. Uniformity, of the diamond particles.
The size is categorized as:
- Coarse (125 to 250 mm)

- Medium (88 to 125 mm)
- Fine (60 to 74 mm)
- Very fine (38 to 44 mm)
- Diamond finishing instruments use finer
diamond (10 to 38 mm) to produce smooth
surfaces for final finishing of preparation.
B. Rubber stones:
- They have flexible heads.
- Used for finishing and polishing procedures
- Formed by molding rubber with abrasive particles as carborundum.
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Instruments
C. Un-mounted instruments:
- They are formed of:
1. Mandrel (shank)
2. Screw (attach the mandrel to the interchangeable working parts)
3. Interchangeable working parts
- This design permits the instrument to be changed easily and
discarded economically
- Example of un-mounted instruments:
1. Un-mounted wheel stones
2. Un-mounted discs:
->They are coated by a thin layer of abrasive material.
->The common discs have diameters of 3/8, ½, 5/8 and ¾ inch.
->The most commonly used types are:
1) sand paper discs for producing smooth surface of preparation
2) carborundum discs: black in color, termed separating discs
NB.
The mounted types of instruments are those in which the working part
is attached to the shank.
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Principles of tooth preparation
Principles of Tooth Preparation

Principles of tooth preparation:
Certain rules or guidelines followed in order to
achieve the ideal tooth preparation.
Teeth don't possess the regenerative ability found
in most other tissues. Therefore, once enamel or dentin is
lost as a result of carries, trauma or wear, restorative
materials must be used to reestablish form & function.
Teeth require preparation to receive restorations, &
these preparations must be based on fundamental
principles form which basic criteria can be developed to
help predict the success of prosthodontics treatment.
The principles of tooth preparation may be
divided into three broad categories:
 Biological: which is concerned with the health of the
oral tissues
 Mechanical: which is concerned with the integrity &
durability of restoration
 Esthetical: which is concerned with the appearance of
the patient
I. Biological principles:
Procedures involving living tissues must be carefully
executed to avoid unnecessary damage.
The adjacent teeth, soft tissues & the pulp of the
tooth being prepared are easily damaged n tooth
preparation.
If poor preparation leads to inadequate marginal fit
or deficient crown contour, plaque control around fixed
restorations will become more difficult which will impede
the long term maintenance of dental health.
1
1) Prevention of damage of adjacent teeth:

Iatrogenic damage to an adjacent tooth is a common
error in dentistry. Even if the damaged proximal
contact area is carefully reshaped & polished, it will be
more susceptible to dental caries than the original non
damaged tooth, because the original surface enamel
contains higher fluoride concentration & the interrupted
layer is more prone to plaque retention.
There are two techniques to avoid & prevent damage
to adjacent teeth:
1) Surrounding adjacent teeth with a metal matrix band:
 This method is clinically inapplicable because the
thin band may be perforated
2) Using proximal enamel of the tooth being prepared for
protection of adjacent structures:
 Teeth are 1.5 to 2mm wider at the contact area
than at the cement enamel junction, a thin, tapered
diamond stone is passed through the interproximal
contact area leaving a slight lip or fin of enamel
without causing excessive tooth reduction or
undesirable angulation of rotary instrument.
 This method is more preferred
2) Prevention of damage of soft tissue:

 Damage to soft tissues of tongue & cheeks can be
prevented by careful retraction with an aspirator
lip, mouth mirror, a flanged saliva ejector
 Gingival damage can be prevented by using gingival
retraction cords "equi gingival & subgingival margin
preparation".
 Damage of soft tissues may cause severe bleeding
which sometimes require suturing.
2
3) Prevention of damage of pulp:

 Care must be taken during fixed
prosthodontics procedures "esp. complete
crown preparation" to avoid pulpal injuries
 Pulpal damage prevention necessitates selection of
techniques & materials that will reduce the risk of
damage while preparing tooth structure.
 Causes of injury:
1. Temperature
- Heat generation is caused by the friction bet.
A rotary instrument & the surface being
prepared
- Factors affecting heat generation:
o Excessive pressure, & higher rotational
speed will incr. heat generation
o Also the type, shape & condition of the
cutting instrument affect heat generation
- How to reduce heat generation:
1) Feather light touch with high speed hand
piece allows efficient removal of tooth
material with minimal heat generation.
2) Even with the lightest touch, the tooth
will be overheated unless a water spray is
used "coolant"
This spray gives air & water
 If only water  no complete
removal of debris
 If only air  dehydration of dentin
It's multidirectional & water temp is
37C
3
It must be accurately directed at the

area of contact bet tooth & bur to
 Remove debris (clogging  cutting
efficiency)
 Prevent desiccation of dentin (
severe pulpal irritation
3) Stones should be sharp
4) Grooves preparation is done by low speed
hand piece because
 High speed band piece isn’t accurate
 Grooves made by high speed hand
pieces are very deep so the coolant
can't reach them  may cause severe
infection
Note:
 High speed > heat generation than low speed
 High speed + coolant < heat generation than low

speed
2. Chemicals:
- The chemical action of certain dental
materials (base, restorative resins, solvents &
luting agents) can cause pulpal damage
particularly when they are applied to freshly
cut dentin.
- Cavity varnish or dentin bonding agents will form an
effective barrier, but their effect on the retention of
a cemented restoration is controversial.
- Some chemical agents used for cleaning &
degreasing tooth preparations have shown to be
pulpal irritant so their use is contraindicated,
particularly because they don’t improve the
retention of cemented restorations.
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3. Bacterial agents:
- Pulpal damage under restoration has been
attributed bacteria which
 Were left behind
 Gained access due to micro leakage
However, many dental materials, including
zing phosphate cement have an antibacterial
effect
- All carious dentin should be removed before
placing a restoration. "endotreatment is also
applied if caries are very close to pulp."
- Indirect pulp cap is not recommended.
4) Conservation of tooth structures:

 This will reduce the harmful pulpal effects of the
various procedures & materials used
 The thickness of remaining dentin is inversely
proportional to the pulpal response, & the tooth
preparation extending deeply towards the pulp
should be avoided.
 Tooth structure is conserved by using the following
guidelines:
1) Use of partial coverage rather than complete
coverage restorations.
2) Preparation of teeth with the minimum practical
convergence angle (taper) bet. Axial walls
3) Preparation of occlusal surface so reduction
follows the anatomical planes to give uniform
thickness of the restoration "flat occlusal
surface  excessive reduction  retention"
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4) Preparation of the axial surface so tooth

structure is removed evenly "teeth should
be orthodontically removed if necessary"
5) Selection of a conservative margin compatible
with the other principles of tooth preparation
6) Avoidance of unnecessary apical extension of
preparation
5) Occlusion:
 TMJ and muscle of mastication health must be considered
proper occlusion is achieved by  Proper contour
 Good occlusal reduction
Considerations affecting future dental health:
 An improperly prepared tooth may have an adverse

effect on long term dental health
 Insufficient axial reduction results in:
 Thin restoration: poor esthetics, fracture easily &
deformation
 Bulky restoration over contoured: most common 

gingival inflammation
This may cause periodontal disease or dental caries.
Alternatively, inadequate occlusal reduction may result in
occlusal dysfunction & poor margin placement may lead to
chipped enamel or cusp fracture.
6) Margin placement (adaptation / integrity) – finish

line:
Ending of tooth preparation should terminate at a
definite position & configuration being termed as finish
line.
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 Finish line: meeting bet. The prepared & non.

Prepared tooth structure
 Margin: part of the crown "restoration" which
fits on the finish line.
1. Margin location:
 Supra gingival: supra gingival margins are easier to
prepare accurately without trauma to the soft
tissue, they are usually suited on hard enamel
 Advantages:
1. Can be easily finished
2. More easily kept clean
3. Impressions are more easily made, with less
potential for soft tissues damage
4. Easy cementation & easy removal of excess
cement
5. Restorations can be easily evaluated at recall
appointments
 Sub gingival: sub gingival margin of cemented
restorations have been identified as a major factor
in periodontal disease, particularly where they
encroach on the epithelial attachment, they are
often on dentin or cementum
 How it's done:
By using gingival retraction cord of proper size,
using a traumatic techniques
The finish line should be
 0.5 mm above CEJ
 distance bet. Margin & alveolar bone crest is 2 mm
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Limited by: Biological width

 Biological width: connective tissue which
attaches the gingiva to the tooth if damaged:
causes bocket formation & bone resorption.
 A sub gingival margin is justified if any of the following
exists:
1. Dental caries, cervical erosion, or restorations
extending subgingivally & a crown. Lengthening
procedure is not indicated
2. Proximal contact area extend to the gingival crest
3. Additional retention is needed "short preparation
stumb", less than 4 mm
4. The margin of a metal – ceramic crown is to be
hidden behind the labio gingiva crest "esthetical"
5. Root sensitivity can't be controlled by more
conservative procedures, such as the application of:
dentin bonding agents, varnishes, glass ionomer, or
soft tissue graft.
6. Modification of the axial contour is indicated "tilted
tooth"
 Disadvantages:
Gingival recession after 2 years  exposure of
margins
 Equi gingival; very common nowadays
1.Margin adaptation:
The junction bet a commented restoration & the

tooth is always a potential site for recurrent caries,
because of dissolution of the luting agent & the inherent
roughness.
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The more accurately the restoration is adapted to

the tooth, the lesser the chance of recurrent caries or
periodontal disease.
Although a precise figure for acceptable margin
adaptation is not available a skilled technician can make a
casting fits to within 10 m & a porcelain margin that fits
within 50 m provided that the tooth is properly
prepared.
2. Margin geometry:
Different shapes of margins have been described &
advocated for evaluation, the following guidelines for
margin design should be considered
 Ease of preparation without over extension or
unsupported enamel
 Ease of identification in the impression or on the
die
 A distinct boundary to which the wax pattern can
be finished
 Sufficient bulk of material to allow handling of was
pattern without distortion & to give the
restoration strength, and esthetics when porcelain
is used.
 Conservation of tooth structure "provided that the
other criteria are met"
3. Finish line configuration
Finish lines are classified acc. To the type of
restoration used, whether it's metal, ceramics "non-
metal" or combination.
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 With metallic restoration

1) Feather edge (shoulder less / indefinite)
finish line
 Thickness: 0.1 mm
 Formed by: disc
 Advantage: conservation of tooth structure
 Disadvantage: don’t provide sufficient bulk, which
leads to:
- Very thin restoration  metal is perforated
- Over contoured restoration  inflammation & plaque
accumulation, it's more common since the technician
can handle the wax patter without distortion only by
increasing its bulk beyond original contour.
 Indication: metallic crowns copper band
technique :"using compound impression materials"
2) Chisel (knife edge / indefinite) finish line:
 Thickness: 0.2 mm
 Formed by: needle stone
 Advantages: conservation of tooth structure
 Disadvantage: location of margin difficult to
control doesn’t provide sufficient bulk…
 Indications: occasionally on tilted teeth
- Mesially tilted molars
- Lingually tilted molars
- Cervically constricted teeth
3) Chamfer (definite) finish line:
 Thickness: 0.3-0.5 mm
 Formed by: ½ thickness of tapered with rounded
end stone
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 Advantages: distinct margins

- Adequate bulk
- Easier to control
 Disadvantage: unsupported enamel lip formation
"must be avoided"
 Indication: with cast metal restorations
- 0.3 mm thickness  base metal
- 0.5 mm thickness  gold
Because base metals have higher rigidity, yield
strength & melting point than gold with lingual
margin of PFM
 Contraindication: in ceramic restoration
4) Bevel (definite) finish line:
 Thickness: 0.3-0.5 mm
 Formed by: tinker stone or torbado stone
 Advantages: allow finishing of metal
- Removes unsupported enamel lip
- Provides a good marginal adaptation
 Disadvantages: extend preparation apically
(extend subgingivally)
 Indication:
- With metal restoration especially gold
- In case of cervical erosion or caries
- With partial coverage crowns (facial
margin of maxillary partial coverage
restorations).
 With ceramic restorations:
1) Shoulder (conventional / classic shoulder) finish
line:
 Thickness: 1-1.5 mm
 Formed by: full thickness of tapered with flat
end stone
11
 Advantage:
- Provides sufficient bulk
- Provides butt joint (flat seat)
which gives support for porcelain
 Disadvantage:
- Less conservation of tooth structure
- Internal angle is sharp (90)  stress
concentration & chipping of porcelain
 Indication: not commonly used in all ceramics
restoration used with:
- Veneered crowns: on buccal surface
- Full veneered crowns
2) Rounded shoulder (radial shoulder) finish line:
 Thickness: 0.8-1 mm
 Formed by: tapered with rounded end stone, &
radial fissure bur for roundation of internal angle
 Advantages:
- No sharp internal angle
o Less stress concentration
o No chipping of porcelain
 Disadvantage: less conservation of tooth
structure
 Indication: all ceramics crowns
3) Heavy chamfer (deep chamfer) finish line:
 Thickness: 0.8-1 mm
 Formed by: trapped with rounded end stone (half
thickness)
 Advantage:
- Easy preparation
12
 Indication:
- Less conservation of tooth
structure
- Care should be provided to not increase
the thickness of this line as this may
lead to fracture
 Indication: all ceramic crowns (most common)
 With porcelain fused to metal restoration
(combination):
1) Shoulder (conventional / classic shoulder) finish
line)
2) Sloped shoulder finish line:
 Formed by: tinker stone or torbado stone
 Advantage:
- Provides sufficient bulk fo
o Metal: strength
o Porcelain: esthetics
- Internal angle is 120
o Less stress concentration
o No chipping
 Disadvantage: less conservation & may extend
apically (subgingivally)
 Indication: facial margin of PFM
3) Beveled shoulder finish line:
 Formed by: tapered with flat end stone then
bevel by tinker stone
 Advantages:
13

- Allows finishing (burnishing) of
metal.
 Disadvantages: less conservation of tooth
structure may extend apically (sub gngivally)
 Indication: facial margin of posterior PFM crowns
with subgingival margins
II. Mechanical principles:

They are divided into three categories:
1. Providing retention form
2. Providing resistance form
3. Preventing deformation of the restoration
(structural durability)
1) Retention form:
Definitions:
 Retention form: quality of preparation that prevents
the restoration from becoming dislodged under the
effect of vertical forces parallel to the patch of
withdrawal (or: under the effect of centric
movement)
 Path of withdrawal: imaginary line describing the
path of restoration when it's removed
 Path of insertion: imaginary line describing the path
of restoration when it's being seated
Factors affecting retention from:
1. Magnitude of the dislodging forces
2. Geometry of the tooth preparation
3. Materials being cemented
4. Type 7 film thickness of the luting agent
14
5. Roughness of the fitting surface of the

restoration
1) Magnitude of the dislodging forces:
Forces that tend to remove a cemented restoration
along its path of withdrawal arise from:
 Pulling with dental floss under the connectors
 Eating sticky food "as caramel"  considered the
greatest removal forces the magnitude of dislodging
forces depends on
1. Stickiness of food
2. Surface area of restoration being pulled
3. Texture of restoration being pulled
2) Geometry of the tooth preparation:
 Most fixed prostheses depend on the geometric
form of preparation rather than on adhesion for
retention, because most of traditional cements "as
zinc phosphate" are non-adhesive "they act by
increasing the frictional resistance bet. Tooth &
restoration"
 Cement is most effective only if the restoration has
a single path of withdrawal, in case of multiple paths
of withdrawal, retention will only be a result of the
cement's limited adhesion
 Geometry of tooth preparation includes:
 Taper
 Surface area
 Stress concentration
 Type of preparation
15
 Taper:
 Theoretically, maximum retention is obtained if
a tooth preparation has parallel walls. However, it's
impossible to prepare a tooth this way using current
techniques & instruments; slight undercuts are
created that prevent the restoration from seating.
 A slight convergence or taper is necessary in
completed preparation as long as the taper is small
the movement of cemented restoration will be
effectively restrained by the preparation  this is
known as limited path of withdrawal.
 The recommended convergence bet. Opposing walls
is 3.6 degrees for each surface "total convergence
is 6-12 degrees"
How is it produced?
The rotary instrument is moved through a
cylindrical path & the taper of the instrument
should produce the desired axial wall taper.
 If the convergence increase  multiple paths of
withdrawal  free movement of restoration &
retention will be reduced
Note: too small taper  undercuts
To large taper  no good retention
 The recommended is slight convergence
 Divergent walls (reverse taper)  the crown won't
fit into the prepared tooth.
 Surface area:
 Provided the restoration has a limited path of
withdrawal, its retention depends on surface area in
sliding contact "length of withdrawal path”. The
length of the prepared tooth must not be less than
16
4mm otherwise it won’t be retentive (( except in

molars as their MD dimensions are larger so
retention))
If the length of prepared tooth is less than 4mm
the following can be done:
1. Subgingival finish line.
2. Crown lengthening (removal of gingiva and bone).
3. Orthodontic treatment.
4. Grooves formation.
 Molar crowns are more retentive than premolar
crowns of the same taper
 Surfaces where the crown is being pulled away from
rather than sliding along the tooth "as occlusal
surface" don’t add much to total retention.
 Stress concentration:
The stresses are concentrated around the junction
of the axial & occlusal surface so roundation of internal
angles will help decrease these stresses & so increase
retention. Over roundation -> dec friction
 Type of preparation:
 Retention of complete crown is about double that of
partial coverage restoration.
 Adding grooves to a preparation with a limited path
of withdrawal doesn’t markedly affect its retention
bec, the surface area is not increased significantly,
but if the addition of grooves limits the path of
withdrawal, retention is increased.
 Grooves: 1. ((Box shaped retentive as it increase surface
area but least conservative)) 2.((V shaped least retentive ))
by needle stone but more conservative applied to lower
17
anterior teeth.3.((U shaped : most commonly used by

tapered with round end stone )).
3) Roughness of the surface being cemented:

 Internal surface of restoration:
 If very smooth  retentive failure occurs at the
cement – restoration interface
 In order to increase retention  restoration is
roughened or grooved  roughening of restoration
is done by air abrading (sand blasting0 by alumina
particles.
 Tooth preparation
 Retentive failure at cement – tooth interface is
very rare.
 Roughening the tooth preparation is not
recommended as it adds to the difficulty of
impression making & waxing.
 Using etching technique creates micro roughness
 mechanical bonding &  surface area for
chemical bond.
4) Materials being cemented:

 The more reactive the alloy, the more adhesion
there will be with certain luting agents.
 Base metals are better retained than les reactive
high gold content metals. Bonding to enamel is
easier than dentin .
5) Type of luting cement:
 Adhesive cements are most retentive "chemo-
mechanical" while conventional cements are less
retentive "mechanical only"
18
2. resistance form:
definitions:
- Resistance form: it’s the quantity of preparation that

prevents the restoration from becoming dislodged
under the effect of lateral (horizontal /oblique/off-
vertical) forces which takes place during eccentric
movements (protrusion-chewing…)
- Tipping path (TIPPING ARCH): imaginary pathway

through which the lateral forces tend to displace the
restoration by causing rotation around the gingival
margin
- Resistance area: area of natural teeth that is outside
of tipping path which prevent the rotation of the
restoration.
Factors affecting the resistance:
1. Magnitude and direction of the dislodging force

2. Geometry of the tooth preparation
3. Physical properties of the luting agent
Magnitude and direction of the dislodging forces:

In normal occlusion, biting forces adistributed over
all teeth and most of it is axially directed ...
In case of a well-made restoration with a properly

designed occlusion, the load will be well distributed
and favorably directed.
In Bruxing or pipe smoking patients it may be

difficult to prevent oblique forces from being
19
applied to the restoration and therefore the

prepared tooth and restoration must be able to
withstand both oblique and normal axial force.
Geometry of the tooth preparation:

The tooth preparation must be shaped so that
particular areas of the axial wall will prevent rotation
of the crown, this includes:
1-Taper:
Over tapering and over roundation -> Dec. resistance

area so Dec. resistance
2- Surface area:
increasing the length of tooth preparation will help in

increasing the resistance of the restoration (it was
found that when comparing premolars and molars of
the same taper and roundation the premolars had
higher resistance; premolars are longer than molars)
So the shorter the preparation the more important

the taper.
3- Type of the preparation:
Partial coverage restoration may have less resistance

than a complete crown since it has no buccal resistance
area.
Resistance can be improved by adding grooves to the

tooth preparation, these grooves are
- U-shaped: most commonly used
-V-shaped: least resistance but more conservative
20
-Box groove: most resistance but least conservative
- Physical properties of the luting agent:
The most important properties to be considered are

the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity
-zinc phosphate cement->mechanical bond, so it helps

in increasing resistance
While zinc polycarboxylate cements ->chemo-

mechanical bond so better for retention.
Resin cement can be used to increase both retention

and resistance.
3. structural durability (deformation):
a restoration must have sufficient strength to

prevent permanent deformation during function or
else it will fail (typically at the restoration-cement
or metal-porcelain interface)
this may be due to inappropriate alloy selection,

inadequate tooth preparation or poor metal-ceramic
framework design.
Alloy selection:
For gold alloys:
Type 1 and type 2 gold alloys are used for single

crown preparation while type 3 and type 4 gold
alloys are used for long span bridge preparation
since they have a higher modulus of elasticity.
For base metals:
21
Cobalt-chromium alloys are more used for long span

bridge preparation than nickel-chromium alloys since
they are harder.
Adequate tooth preparation:

Even the strongest alloys need sufficient bulk if
they are to withstand occlusal forces.
Occlusal surface reduction:
 1.5mm of functional cusps (buccal in the mandibular

teeth and lingual in the maxillary teeth)
 1mm in non-functional cusps.
 1mm in grooves and fissures
occlusal reduction should be as uniform as
possible, following the cuspal planes of teeth.
*Functional cusp bevel is made to ensure that sufficient

occlusal clearance is combined with preservation of as much
tooth structure as possible.
Margin design (finish line):

Tooth preparation should provide sufficient room
for the bulk of metal at the margin to prevent
distortion.
Examples:
-In featheredge finish line preparation the
resulting thin layer of the metal is not as strong
as the comparatively thicker restoration of a
chamfer finish line preparation.
-grooves in partial coverage restorations provide
enough strength for the casting especially in
anterior pin ledge retainer.
22
Esthetic properties:
The dentist should be able to achieve the esthetical
expectations of the patient, as most of the patients
prefer their dental restorations to look as natural as possible.
However, care must be taken that esthetic considerations are
not pursued at the expense of a patient’s long-term oral health
or functional efficiency.
 metal-ceramic restorations: the poor appearance of some

metal-ceramic restoration is often due to:
 1.insufficient porcelain thickness on the other hand,
adequate porcelain thickness is sometimes obtained on the
expense of proper axial contour (->over contoured
restoration -> periodontal diseases)
 2. The labial margin of a metal-ceramic crown is not always
accurately placed. To correct these deficiencies, certain
principles must be followed during tooth preparation …
-facial tooth reduction: adequate reduction of the facial

surface is essential. The amount of reduction depends on:
1- The physical properties of the alloy used
2- The manufacturer skills
3- Shade of the porcelain. 1.5 mm is the minimum
reduction required for optimal appearance. The facial
surface should be prepared in two distinct planes:
 Primary plane: cervically
 Secondary plane: in the middle and incisal
The importance of 2ry plane is to give bulk for the
porcelain to mask the metal .
- Labial margin placement (finish line):
23
-Subgingival margins are preferred for esthetic

reasons particularly when the patient has high lip line.
However, the appearance can be restored with a
metal-ceramic restoration having a SUPRAGINGIVAL
porcelain labial margin which is called collarless design
- Incisal reduction:
The incisal edge of malt-ceramic restoration has no metal
backing so it can be done with a translucency similar to
that of natural teeth.
An incisal reduction of 2mm is recommended for good
esthetics.
Excessive reduction must be avoided as it decreases the
retention and resistance form of the preparation.
-proximal reduction:
The proximal surfaces of anterior teeth will look almost
natural if they are restored without metal backing –as
the incisal edge- and the metal-ceramic junction must be
just behind the contact area, this will allow the light to
pass through the restoration in a manner similar to what
occurs on a natural tooth.
The proximal surface of posterior teeth:
The mesial surface is the one to be considered the most
as it appears when the patient smiles or opens his mouth
so the preparation of mesial aspect should extend more
palatably, while in the distal surface the preparation ends
nearly before the contact area.
Partial-coverage restoration:
It is more preferred to use partial-coverage
restorations whenever it is possible not only because the
tooth structure is conserved but also because no
24
restorative material can approach the appearance of

intact tooth enamel. Partial-coverage restorations depend
on accurate placement of the potentially visible facial and
proximal margins.
- Proximal margins:
Placement of proximal margins (particularly the mesial
which is the visible margin) is critical for esthetics. The
rule is to place the margin just buccal to proximal contact
area where the metal will be hidden by the distal line
angle of the neighboring tooth. The preparation
angulation is critical and should follow the long axes of
posterior teeth and the incisal two thirds of facial
surface of anterior teeth. As for the distal margin, it is
advantageous to extend the preparation farther beyond
the contact point for easier preparation, finishing of the
restoration and better access for oral hygiene.
-facial margin:
The facial margin of the partial-coverage restoration
should extend just beyond the occluso-facial line angle. a
short bevel is needed to prevent the chipping of enamel.
also a chamfer finish line can be placed when appearance
is less important (as in molars) which will provide greater
bulk of metal for strength. anterior partial-coverage
restorations can be fabricated to show no metal, the
facial margin extends just beyond the highest contour of
the incisal edge but not quite to the inciso- labial line
angle, here the metal will prevent the tooth from chipping
but will not be visible.
25
Full veneer metal crown
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Definition:
The full veneer metal crown is an extra-coronal restoration that covers

all surfaces of the tooth.
It offers the best longevity among all restorations.
It can be used as either single crown or bridge retainer.
It’s made of gold or base metal.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of full veneer crown :
Advantages: Disadvantages:
- Strong -removal of large amount of
- High retentive qualities tooth structure
- Easy to obtain adequate -adverse effect on tissues

(irritation as in cobalt-
resistance form
chromium metal)
- Option to modify form
-vitality testing (electric) not
and occlusion ((over
readily feasible
erupted teeth
-display of metal ((bad
and tilted teeth))
esthetics))
1
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Indications :
1) Extensive coronal destruction from caries or trauma

2) Endodontically treated teeth (if the remaining tooth structure is
very small)
3) Existing restoration (if restoration covers a wide area and liable
to fracture)
4) Necessity for maximum retention and strength
5) To provide contours to receive a removable appliance
6) Other recontouring of axial surfaces (minor correction of
malinclinations)
7) Correction of occlusal plane
8) Short clinical crowns
9) Patients with para-functional habits (bruxism and clenching)
Contra-indications:
1) Less than maximum retention necessary

2) When a more conservative restoration can be used, as partial
coverage restorations
3) Teeth with high esthetic need as in anterior teeth
2
_________________________________________________________________________________________
Steps of tooth preparation
1. Occlusal preparation :
 amount: functional cusps: 1.5 mm
non-functional cusps: 1 mm
central groove: 1 mm
 should follow the anatomy (to give sufficient bulk and structural
durability)
 functional cusp bevel
 Occlusal clearance : no occlusal contact bet. Opposing teeth in

centric and eccentric movements.
 how to check the occlusal reduction?
- Using index (matrix)
- Depth cuts (guiding grooves)
- Wax and caliper
- Temporary crown thickness
- Fleximeter strips
3
_________________________________________________________________________________________
 how to check the bevel:
by looking form the opposing view
NB.
Inadequate central reduction -> fracture of the restoration
Flat reduction -> violate biological principles, and inadequate retention

and resistance
2. axial reduction:
 amount: 0.3 - 0.5 mm
how to check the reduction?
- Using index
- Thickness of the stone : half thickness of stone
Technique :
- Free hand technique
- Guiding grooves
 walls are slightly converged

how to check the taper ?
- Using a mirror to evaluate the convergence bet the opposing walls
- Placing the stone or probe parallel to the wall (there should be no
undercuts)
4
_________________________________________________________________________________________
3. proximal contact area:
the proximal contact area should be opened with no injury to the

adjacent teeth.
 technique:
using needle stone
 how to check ?
using a probe
4. finish line:
 Type: chamfer finish line
 Position: supra-gingival (0.5 – 1 mm above gingiva)
 Thickness: 0.3 -0.5 mm
 Avoid enamel lip formation
 The finish line should follow the
contour of CEJ, continuous and
smooth
 Function of finish line: marginal
adaptation and integrity
how to check?
By looking from occlusal view
5
_________________________________________________________________________________________
NB.
-Thin finish line -> no marginal adaptation, leading to dissolution
of cement and recurrent caries
-Thick finish line -> enamel lip formation, leading to fracture
-No finish line -> no proper seating of the crown and no marginal
adaptation, leading to dissolution of cement and recurrent caries
-Irregular finish line -> cement dissolution, plaque accumulation
and recurrent caries
-Unnecessary apical extension -> over reduction and violation of
the biological principles.
5. Finishing and roundation:

- A smooth surface finish and continuity of all prepared surfaces
facilitate impression making, waxing,
investing and casting.
- All line angles should be rounded
- Surface irregularities cause stress
concentration which leads to de-
bonding ( retention) and recurrent
caries.
technique:
using a fine diamond stone
6
_________________________________________________________________________________________
criteria of tooth preparation:
1. The occlusal reduction must allow adequate room for the alloy
used. Minimal recommended clearance is 1 mm on non-
functional cusp and 1.5 mm on functional cusps
2. The occlusal reduction must follow the normal anatomic
contour to be conservative
3. Axial reduction should be parallel to the long axis of the tooth,
allowing 6 degrees of convergence between opposing axial
surfaces
4. The margin should be located sup gingivally, the chamfer
should be smooth, distinct and allow for 0.5 mm of metal
thickness at the margin
5. Functional cusp bevel:
The bevel must be angled to be about 45 to the long axis. This
reduction of the functional cusp will provide optimum
restoration contour with maximum durability and conservation
of tooth structure
7
Veneered crown
________________________________________________________________________
The veneered crown
Definition :
- It’s a full coverage crown (metal-ceramic) that consists of a
cast metal substructure with one or two surfaces covered
with porcelain ( veneered ) OR with all surfaces covered with
porcelain ( full veneered ).
- It combines both advantages of
1. Metal  strength & durability.
2. Porcelain  mimic natural teeth ( esthetics)
- Complete coverage by metal .
- Extention varies .
- Need Major requirements :-
 Enough tooth reduction  to allow sufficient bulk to mask

metal & porcelain as insufficient thickness will lead to
a. Poor contoured restoration affecting esthetics &
gingival health.
b. Bad shade & translucent of final restoration.
N.B. so it is one of the least conservative of tooth structure
 Need special alloys which are :-

a. Compatible with ceramics in
Physical properties ( modulus & y.s )
Adequate bond strength.
b. High fusing range ( to withstand high temp. of porcelain).
c. Low thermal expansion.
1
Veneered crown
________________________________________________________________________
Indications:-
1. Esthetics demands.
2. Durability ( better than all ceramic as its supported by metal
so better used in patients with para-functional habits)
3. Marginal fit ( better than all ceramics).
4. Crown & bridges ( connectors)
In metal ceramic bridge the connectors are thinner
(2.5-3 mm) than in all ceramic bridge ( 4 mm ).
N.B. so better used in patients with short teeth.
5. Support a removable partial denture ( allow placement of
rests, if RPD is a part of treatment).
6. Extensive tooth destruction ( caries – trauma – extensive
erosion – endodontically treated )
7. Correction of malocclusion.
8. Correction of occlusal plane.
Contra indications :-
1. Patients with active caries ( contra indicated to any fixed
restoration, so removable restorations are preferred unless
the patient changed his mentality ) .
2. Untreated periodontal diseases ( mobility – pocket depth).
3. Young patients with large pulp champers due to high risk of
pulp exposure so porcelain & composite laminates are
preferred.
4. If more conservative restoration is possible.
5. If facial wall is intact  partial veneer is possible &
favorable .
N.B
Partial coverage  Dec. surface area  Dec. retention &
resistance.
2
Veneered crown
________________________________________________________________________
Advantages :-
1. Strength of metal ( reinforcement & support to brittle
ceramic).
2. Mimic natural teeth appearance.
3. Provides excellent retention & resistance ( full coverage ).
4. Easier preparation than partial coverage .
Disadvantages:-
1. No conservation for tooth structure.
2. To achieve better esthetics, the facial margin needed to be
placed subgingivally which increase risk of periodontal
disease.
3. Fracture due to brittleness of ceramic material.
4. Inferior esthetics compared to all ceramics.
5. Difficulty in accurately selection of shade.
6. Many procedural steps ( casting – porcelain adaptation ) so
its expensive.
Margin design ( equigingival )

 Metal collar ( metal + porcelain )
 Ease of fabrication for non-esthetic situation .
 Disappearing margin ( thin metal margin )
 Metal thinned to fine line ( barely visible)  improved
esthetics compared to metal collar but more opacity than
porcelain margin.
 Porcelain ( short metal + porcelain)
 Collarless metal ceramic crown  most esthetic but
requires very skillful technician.
3
Veneered crown
________________________________________________________________________
Anterior tooth preparation :-

Steps of preparation:-
1. Index
 Putty matrix  hand made .
 wax up ( vacuum sheet) -> index ( night guard of clear acryl)
->pressing -> index.
2. Incisal reduction
 amount : 1.5 - 2 mm ( to give bulk for porcelain for good
esthetics& translucency )
 incisal bevel
Upper anteriors -> palatally directed
Lower anteriors -> buccaly directed
3. Buccal reduction
 amount : 1.5 mm
 in 2 planes
1) cervical ( // to long axis)  determines path of
withdrawal
2) incisal or middle ( inclination) provides space for
porcelain veneer.
4. Finish line ( facial margin )

type
a. Deep chamfer
b. Shoulder rounded
c. Shoulder
d. Sloped shoulder
 amount : 1.5 mm
 checked by have thickness of stone to avoid enamel
formation.
4
Veneered crown
________________________________________________________________________
5. Proximal reduction
 contact area should be opened without injury of adjacent
teeth .
 should be slightly converge 6 degree  avoid undercut.
6. Lingual reduction
 cingulum  // to cervical 1/3  retention & resistance.
 fossa  concave  structural durability .
7. Wing preparation
 transition between chamfer finish line lingually & shoulder
buccaly.
 claimed to give strength but considered to be stress line.
 so wingless prep is preferred ( no definite Trancession from
chamfer to shoulder ) shoulder gradually narrows lingually.
prevention of trauma to pulp :-

 adequate coolant( air water spray) during preparation.
intermittent strokes preparation.
 care while preparation of subgignival margin.
8. Finishing
 by red or yellow stone
 smooth glass like
 rounded line angles
 no scratches
 use gingival retraction.
5
Veneered crown
________________________________________________________________________
Criteria of preparation :-
 Chamfer
- marginal integrity.
 wing
- retention & resistance
-preservation of tooth structure .
 incisal notch
- structural durability.
 shoulder
-marginal integrity
-structural durability
 axial reduction
- retention &resistance
- structural durability
Posterior tooth preparation :-

1. occlusal reduction followed by functional cusp bevel.
2. Depth orientation grooves
3. Facial reduction occlusal half
4. Facial reduction gingival half
5. Proximal axial reduction
6. Lingual axial reduction
7. Axial finishing
8. Gingival bevel.
6
Veneered crown
________________________________________________________________________
Criteria of preparation :-
 Chamfer
- marginal integrity.
- structural durability .
 Lingual axial reduction
-retention & resistance
-structural durability.
 wing
- retention & resistance
-preservation of tooth structure .
 functional cusp bevel
 Gingival bevel
- marginal integrity .
 shoulder
-marginal integrity
 facial axial reduction
- retention &resistance
- structural durability
 planer occlusal reduction
Evaluation:-
1. incisal or occlusal reduction 2mm in centric & eccentric
movements.
2. Axial wall restricted angle of convergence
3. Facial wall exhibit two plane reductions
4. Shoulder finish line provide 1.2-1.5 mm & chamfer .5mm
5. Smooth & rounded preparation .
7
All ceramics restoration
All ceramics restorations
All ceramics crowns are full coverage restorations, with no metal in

their structure, so they are considered the ideal esthetic restorations
as they give translucency and mimic natural teeth.
Other ceramic restorations include: veneers, inlays and onlays …
NB.
Veneers :
- All ceramic restorations for discolored or mal-aligned teeth
- They require slight preparation in enamel as
 bonding to enamel is better than bonding o dentin
 conservation of tooth structure
- They are indirect restorations
1
Advantages:
1. Best esthetics
2. Excellent translucency, resembles natural teeth
3. Good tissue response (ceramics are inert and bio-compatible and
plaque is easily removed form it)
4. More conservative preparation of facial surface (compared to
veneered crowns)
5. Higher color stability in comparison to composite
6. Low thermal conductivity in comparison to metal
7. Shade (color) can be modified by the shade of the underlying
luting cement
NB. Luting cement used with ceramic restorations is resin cement
Disadvantages:
1. Brittle and have low strength so liable to fracture

2. Less conservation of tooth structure (esp. lingually and
proximally) if compared with veneered crowns
3. Wear of opposing tooth structure (it’s harder than enamel and
dentin so it must be glazed and polished to reduce the wear)
4. Critical preparation so roundation of line angle (as in shoulder
finish line -> internal angle 90) is a must to prevent stress
concentration and fracture.
5. Not effective as bridge retainers.
2
Indications:
1. Areas where high esthetic needs are required

2. Discoloration and malformed teeth, as peg shaped or small upper
lateral incisor
3. Extensive caries (when composite is not applicable)
4. Restoration of anterior teeth of normal (favorable) occlusal load,
where lower teeth strike upper teeth at middle third
5. Sufficient crown length after tooth preparation (length must not
be less than 4mm)
Contra indication:
1. Reduced esthetic demands

2. If a more conservative restoration can be used
3. In short teeth after preparation (less than 4mm) this will lead to
fracture (as ceramic thickness will be more than 2mm)
4. Young age, may cause pulp exposure during secondary plane
formation
5. Unfavorable occlusal load as in deep bite, cross bite or edge to
edge.
NB.
- Edge to edge occlusion will produce stresses in the incisal area of

the restoration
- When opposing teeth occlude on the cervical fifth of the lingual
surface -> forces are concentrated in the opposite direction
labially (labio-gingivally), causing fracture of ceramics  Half-
moon fracture.
3
Criteria of tooth preparation:
 Incisal reduction:
- Approximately 1.5 mm
- Creation of bevel (lingually in upper teeth and labially in lower
teeth)
- Roundation
 Labial reduction
- Using tapered with flat end stone

- Amount: 0.8 – 1 mm
- Reduction is formed in two planes : primary and secondary planes
- Roundation of line angles
 lingual reduction

- The following must be considered during reduction:
a. Cervically  cingulum (by TF or TR stone)
b. Fossa  concave
4
finish line:
- Traditionally : shoulder finish line was applied to give sufficient

bulk to porcelain. however, it created internal angle of 90 which
cause stress concentration leading to fracture.
- Deep chamfer finish line is more preferred since it gives
sufficient bulk, rounded internal angles and more easy to make.
- Also radial shoulder finish line is preformed.
 Finishing:
- Finishing the prepares surface so it becomes smooth

- Roundation of all line angles to prevent stress concentration
which leads to fracture
5
All ceramics restorations
All ceramics crowns are full coverage restorations, with no metal in

their structure, so they are considered the ideal esthetic restorations
as they give translucency and mimic natural teeth.
Other ceramic restorations include: veneers, inlays and onlays …
NB.
Veneers :
- All ceramic restorations for discolored or mal-aligned teeth
- They require slight preparation in enamel as:
 bonding to enamel is better than bonding o dentin
 conservation of tooth structure
- They are indirect restorations
1
Advantages:
1. Best esthetics
2. Excellent translucency, resembles natural teeth
3. Good tissue response (ceramics are inert and bio-compatible and
plaque is easily removed form it)
4. More conservative preparation of facial surface (compared to
full-veneered crowns)
5. Higher color stability in comparison to composite
6. Low thermal conductivity in comparison to metal
7. Shade (color) can be modified by the shade of the underlying
luting cement
NB. Luting cement used with ceramic restorations is resin cement
Disadvantages:
1. Brittle and have low strength so liable to fracture

2. Less conservation of tooth structure (esp. lingually and
proximally) if compared with veneered crowns, or metallic crowns.
3. Wear of opposing tooth structure (it’s harder than enamel and
dentin so it must be glazed and polished to reduce the wear)
4. Critical preparation so roundation of line angle (as in shoulder
finish line -> internal angle 90) is a must to prevent stress
concentration and fracture.
5. Not effective as bridge retainers.
2
Indications:
1. Areas where high esthetic needs are required

2. Discoloration and malformed teeth, as peg shaped or small upper
lateral incisor
3. Extensive caries (when composite is not applicable)
4. Restoration of anterior teeth of normal (favorable) occlusal load,
where lower teeth strike upper teeth at middle third.
5. Sufficient crown length after tooth preparation (length must not
be less than 4mm).
Contra indication:
1. Reduced esthetic demands.

2. If a more conservative restoration can be used.
3. In short teeth after preparation (less than 4mm) this will lead to
fracture (as ceramic thickness will be more than 2mm).
4. Young age, may cause pulp exposure during secondary plane
formation.
5. Unfavorable occlusal load as in deep bite, cross bite or edge to
edge.
NB.
- Edge to edge occlusion will produce stresses in the incisal area of

the restoration
- When opposing teeth occlude on the cervical fifth of the lingual
surface -> forces are concentrated in the opposite direction
labially (labio-gingivally), causing fracture of ceramics  Half-
moon fracture.
3
Criteria of tooth preparation:
 Incisal reduction:
- Approximately 1.5 mm
- Creation of bevel (lingually in upper teeth and labially in lower
teeth)
- Roundation
 Labial reduction

- Reduction is formed in two planes: primary and secondary planes
- Roundation of line angles
 lingual reduction

- The following must be considered during reduction:
a. Cervically  cingulum (by TF or TR stone)
b. Fossa  concave
4
finish line:
- Traditionally : shoulder finish line was applied to give sufficient

bulk to porcelain. however, it created internal angle of 90 which
cause stress concentration leading to fracture.
- Deep chamfer finish line is more preferred since it gives
sufficient bulk, rounded internal angles and more easy to make.
- Also radial shoulder finish line is performed.
 Finishing:
- Finishing the prepares surface so it becomes smooth

- Roundation of all line angles to prevent stress concentration
which leads to fracture
NB.
1- Monolithic crown: made up of one material as a single whole unit

(composed of 1 layer), example: all ceramic crown and cast metal
crown.
2- PFM crown is a multi-layered crown (layers are liable to separation).
3- All Ceramic crowns are present in two forms:
 Monolithic: no layering, stronger as there are no interfaces.
 Framework: Ceramic core and ceramic layers, better esthetics
4- PFM layers:
opaque: to mask the metal
dentin
enamel: gives final contour and shape
5
some definitions:
1. Transparency: full transmission of light.
2. Translucency: partial transmission of light

 all ceramic restorations and natural teeth are translucent due
to absence of the metal core
3. Fluorescence: and indication of the tooth vitality.

 bluish coloration of a tooth in bright light (reflected light) is
an indication of its vitality.
Rare earths, such as terbium, cerium, and ytterbium, are
currently used as luminophores to provide ceramic materials with
fluorescence
4. Opalescence: at the incisal edge of anterior teeth, reddish-

orange appearance under transmitted light.
 This optical effect is a result of the scattering of light by the
hydroxyapatite crystals, which are smaller than the wavelength
of the visible ray.
 Opalescence in dental ceramics is accomplished by the
incorporation of fine-particle refraction oxides into the glass
matrix. These particles need to be smaller than the wavelength of
the light. The differing refractive indices of these particles and
the feldspathic matrix causes the opal effect
6
why ceramics??
1. Preservation of natural tooth structure & Adhesive

2. Elastic modulus close to that of dentin
3. Hardness between that of enamel and dentin
4. Minimal Wear of both the material itself and the antagonist
5. Strength
Development of ceramic material:
- Jacket crown (first ceramic crown), required too much tooth

preparation as the first ceramics were weak, so the porcelain
thickness should be increased.
- All ceramic crowns are now more conservative than PFM as
modern ceramics are stronger
- Ceramics are highly bio-compatible especially with soft tissues
- Ceramics combine:
 Esthetic Stimulate the natural
 Function tooth structure =
 Biological biomimetic
History: (read)
In 1887, Dr. Land was the first who made the first porcelain jacket crown , It
consisted of feldspathic porcelain baked on a thin platinum foil.
In 1889, Dr. Land was the first who made the first porcelain crown , It consisted
of feldspathic porcelain baked on a thin platinum foil
7
But he came up against the problem that the crowns would break too easily, which
limited their use to anterior teeth.
In 1965, McLean and Hughes pioneered the concept of adding Al2O3 to

feldspathic porcelain to improve mechanical and physical properties.
In 1979, McLean concluded that dental porcelain is formed of a glassy phase

forming 86% of volume and the rest is a crystalline phase embedded in the glassy
matrix.
Porcelain:
porcelain is a type of all ceramics, it has two phases:
 glassy
 crystalline
it’s also known as feldspathic porcelain.
It has 3 constituents:
1. Feldspar (main constituent): responsible for the formation of the

glassy phase that holds the silica and keeps the form of the
crown during firing.
2. Silica / Quartz: 2nd main ingredient, forms the crystalline phase,
2ry as a framework.
3. Kaolin (clay): very small percentage, to give a workable mass, act
as a binder.
8
Composition of porcelain:
1. Feldspar: 75-85% by weight

-It’s crystalline and opaque with indefinite color bet. grey and
pink.
-Chemically, it’s designated as potassium aluminum silicate.
-It fuses when heated, and becomes glassy giving porcelain its
translucency.
-It acts as a matrix holding the other components together.

-It also contains alumina (Al0) which increases the viscosity
and hardness.
-NB.
1. Porcelain has high resistance to slump or pyroplastic flow which
is necessary to obtain the desired configuration of the
restoration during firing.
2. porcelain contains potassium and sodium (in feldspar) which
causes:
 the softening temp of the glass is reduced.
 the coefficient of thermal expansion is increased
so, porcelain is used in metal-ceramic restorations can have a
coefficient of thermal expansion close to that of the alloy used
to make the sub-structure.
9
2. Silica: 12-22% by weight

-Pure quartz crystals are ground to the finest grain size.
-Silica contributes in stability and strength of the porcelain
during heating by providing a skeleton or framework for other
ingredients.
-However, such a SiO network would have a very high melting-
point.
3. Kaolin: 3-5% by weight

-It gives porcelain its opacity.
-When mixed with water, it becomes sticky and aids in forming a
workable mass of porcelain during molding (green strength).
-On heating it adheres to the quartz particles and shrinks
considerably.
4. Coloring pigments: <1% by weight

-Added to porcelain in small amount and called color frits.
-Obtaining the delicate shades is necessary to imitate the natural
tooth color.
-They are metallic oxides:
1. Titanium oxides for yellow-brown shades
2. Iron oxide for brown-black
3. Cobalt oxide for blue
4. Copper or chromium oxides for green.
10
NB.
1. In the form of powder/frit each grain contain:

 Feldspar
 Quartz
 Kaolin
 Coloring pigment
2. Increasing kaolin -> increases the opacity (a small % is added)
3. During the manufacture, the materials are mixed at a high temp. to
form a glassy mass, then rapidly cooled (quenched) which causes the
glassy mass to fracture forming a “frit”.
The frit is then ball-milled to obtain the desired particle size
distribution
 if the composition of glass is not properly adjusted, or if the

ceramic restoration is fired too often, the glassy phase (SiO network)
will breakdown and reorganize, leading to crystallization or
devitrification, due to change in lattice structure from vitreous to
crystalline form.
to increase the strength of ceramics-> increase crystals

-Al0 increase silica content -> ease of bonding = chemical and micro-
mechanical adhesion (true bond)
increasing crystalline phase -> increases strength, opacity and

adhesion. (increase strength mainly as it prevents crack propagation)
{new technology=nano-technology}
11
Construction technique of a porcelain jacket crown:
1. Platinum foil application:

-The portion of die to be built up with porcelain is covered by a
layer of platinum foil approximately 0.0025mm thick.
-The main function of platinum matrix is to support the porcelain

during firing and to facilitate the radiation of heat (accuracy of the
final crown).
-Advantages of porcelain:
1. Inert during firing
2. Its melting point is higher than the firing temp of porcelain, so
no distortion occurs.
3. supplied in soft sheets that can be easily adapted to the die.
NB.
The foil is adapted to the facial surface of the die, then folded
around the lingual surface and burnished.
2. Porcelain build up:

An opaque core containing 50% alumina, which will be veneered by a
combination of body (15% alumina) and enamel (5% alumina)
porcelain.
Steps:
a. Mixing: powder + binder (which is either water or water-based
glycerin containing liquid) to from a paste of workable consistency.
12
b. Application: creamy paste of porcelain is applied either to the

refractory die or to the platinum foil, using a spatula or a carver or
any bladed instrument, rather than a brush, the bladed instrument
can also trim away any excess.
Building to the desired form is done in layers and continuous
removal of excess water is done by “porcelain condensation”.
c. Condensation: removal of excess water from the porcelain working

mass after its application and molding (extrusion of water from the
wet mix by forcing it to the surface where it is removed by any
absorbent medium).
 the porcelain powder particles pack more closely.
Objectives of condensation:
1- Removal of excess water to dec. firing shrinkage
2- Most compact arrangement will adapt the paste to the required
form
3- Lack of void spaces and inc. strength
Methods of condensation:
1- Vibration: gentle vibration which causes the porcelain particles to
settle closer, while excess water is absorbed by a napkin or
blotting paper.
2- Spatulation: smoothening and burnishing the wet porcelain by a
spatula, until excess water is brought to the surface and
absorbed
3- Brush/capillary action: dry porcelain powder is applied by a brush
to remove excess water by capillary action.
13
3. Porcelain firing:
-In a furnace, at a specific temp. for a specific time
-Either air firing or vacuum firing.
-Technique:
Firstly, water is gradually lost form the workable mass by warming
the mix, to prevent sudden steam formation
Secondary change then occurs as the mass is placed in a furnace and
the temp. is raised, the free and combined water is lost causing the
particles to fuse together in a process known as sintering
(continuous mass)
No firing is perfect from the first trial
If firing cycles are increased/repeated multiple times, porcelain’s
crystalline phase increases “devitrification” resulting in a milky
appearance -> inc. opacity (bad esthetics).
4. Glazing:
Glaze is a thin, translucent, low fusing porcelain which may be
applied to the surface as the final stage in the firing cycle and
has the effect of filling surface defects (smoothening the
surface), leading to:
 better esthetics and translucency.
 color stability
 no plaque accumulation
14
Layers of application of porcelain:
 if metal ceramic:
1. Opaque: to mask the color of metal and considered the initiator

of color
2. Dentin
3. Enamel
 if all ceramic:
1. Base dentin: main color initiator

2. Dentin: main constituent
3. Enamel: more translucency for esthetics mainly, the formation of
incisal edge responsible for the “final shade” -> fluorescence and
opalescence.
NB.
 No firing is perfect from the first trial.
 If firing cycles are increased/repeated multiple times, porcelain’s

crystalline phase increases “devitrification” resulting in a milky
appearance = increase opacity ((damage of esthetics)).
15
Properties of porcelain:
1. Enough strength in thin sections  minimal preparation and so

conservation of the tooth structure.
2. Esthetics: translucent, natural, opalescent.
3. Enough viscosity, not flowy ((has a form before firing)).

in the furnace during firing at high temp., has resistance to
stumping (pyroplastic flow)
4. Low fusion temp. to avoid melting/sagging of the underlying metal

in metal-ceramic restorations.
fired at almost 700C
5. Resist devitrification:
 vitreous = glass
 vitrification = creation of the glassy phase
 devitrification = creation of the crystalline phase.
- porcelain feldspar: glassy phase
quartz: crystalline phase
porcelain should have resistance to devitrification by avoiding
repeated firing cycles.
16
Recent cements:
1. Machined ceramics (CAD/CAM technology):
Intra oral scanner to scan the preparation


design the crown virtually
to
CAM “Computer Aided Manufacture”
- In CAM: ceramic/porcelain block is milled to obtain the crown.

- The porcelain may be:
block/cube
disc/blank
- To avoid stress concentration during milling:
1. Use premature form of ceramics
2. Use special burs
3. Water
- Technique for forming restoration by CAD-CAM:
1. One layer: better strength
2. Coping (build up layers on a framework): better translucency
17
2. Pressable ceramics:
Steps are almost the same as metal casting:
Impression/intra-oral scan
Model

Wax

Spruing

Investment

Wax elimination

Pressing (instead of casting) in the pressing furnace

pressure and firing
- Ceramic ingots are used with a plunger which is pressed inside the
crown.
Notes:
- In case of absence of an intra-oral scanner, a normal impression
is taken, the impression is sent to the lab to form a model which
is then scanned and then used in milling.
- All new ceramics are low fusing
18
Working casts and dies
Steps of manipulation of restoration (in short):
1. Impression
2. Cast and die formation
3. Formation of wax pattern
4. Casting and investing
Definitions:
- Working (master/definitive/final) cast: it’s the positive

reproduction of the prepared teeth. Ridge areas, and other parts
of the dental arch.
- Die: is the positive reproduction of the prepared tooth and
consists of a suitable hard substance of sufficient accuracy
1
NB.
 Types of casts:
1. Primary (study/diagnostic) cast: used for studying of the case

2. Secondary (master/definitive/final/working) cast: having the
prepared teeth on which the wax pattern will be formed.
 During formation of wax pattern, I need the following:
1) Primary and
secondary cast of
the teeth to be
restored 1ry cast 2ry cast die
2) Primary impression
of the opposing teeth
3) Die: for easier handling during wax pattern fabrication and
finishing of inaccessible areas of the cast
Requirements of the cast:
1) It must reproduce both prepared and unprepared tooth surfaces

and should be free of any voids or defects
2) Allow for precise articulation of the opposing casts.
3) All soft tissues should be reproduced in the working cast,
including all edentulous spaces and residual ridge contours that
will be involved in the fixed prosthesis
2
Ideal properties of the casts and die material:
1. It should be dimensionally accurate.
2. It should have high abrasion resistance, should possess good

strength, & have smooth surface.
3. Toughness to allow burnishing of foil & resist breakage.
4. Ability to reproduce all fine details in the impression (having high

flow)
5. Compatibility with all impression materials (allow easy separation

and no chemical interaction)
6. Colour contrast with wax, porcelain & alloys.
7. Easy & quick manipulation & rapid fabrication.
8. Non-injurious to health by touch or inhalation.
9. Economic.
10. Easily sectioned and trimmed

Specific for die material
11. Wettable by wax
12. Compatible with separating agents
3
Requirements of the die:
1. It must reproduce the prepared teeth exactly; all surfaces must

be accurately duplicated and no air bubbles or voids can be
accepted.
2. Finish line complete.
3. The remaining unprepared tooth structure immediately cervical
to the finish line should be easily discernible on the die, ideally
with 0.5 to 1 mm visible to identify the contour of the tooth &
allow margin adaptation (this can be achieved by using gingival
retraction cords before taking impression)
Materials used for making casts and dies:
1. Gypsum: (commonly used)
• Type IV-dental stone, high strength
• Type V-dental stone, high strength, high expansion
• Dental stone + lignosulphonates (wetting agent, so doesn’t allow

the gypsum to absorb a lot of water, which may cause its
weakening)
2. Metals:
• Electroformed/electroplated.
• Sprayed metals.
• Amalgam.
(advantage: hard and strong, but it’s technique sensitive).
4
3. Polymers:
• Metal-filled resins or inorganic filled resins.
• Epoxy.
4. Cements:
• silicophosphate or
• polyacrylic acid bonded cements.
5. Ceramic or refractory die materials:
• For direct baking of porcelain crown or preparation of wax

pattern for casting.
 refractory means that it can withstand high temp.
 Gypsum:
It’s found in nature as calcium sulphate dihydrate
by heating
calcium sulphate hemihydrate
gypsum powder + H2O  gypsum + heat
(hemihydrate) (dihydrate)
5
Gypsum products:
 Type I: Impression Plaster
 Type II: Model plaster
 Type III: Dental stone
 Type VI: High strength dental Stone
 Type V: Improved Stone, Die Stone
Advantages
1. Inexpensive
2. Compatible with most impression materials
3. Reproduce fine details in the impression.
4. Easy to use
Disadvantage
1) Poor resistance to abrasion
Overcome by:
 Gypsum hardeners (colloidal silica)
 Application of low viscosity resin (Cyanoacrylates).
 Resin-strengthed gypsum product e.g. Resin Rock
 Gum Arabic and calcium hydroxide mixture.
6
2)Setting expansion (by outward thrust):
Linear expansion occurs during setting (0.06-0.9%).
To Control setting expansion: Avoid:
1. Decrease water/ powder.
2. Increasing mixing time.
3. Immersion of gypsum products in water during the setting

process (hygroscopic expansion)
4. Increasing temperature of mixing water from 23-30°.
Follow the manufacturer’s instruction for the current water/powder

ratio and manipulation.
Mixing of gypsum:
1. Manual mixing.
2. Vacuum mixing (to remove any air
bubbles)
 Resin:
Resin are used as a die material to overcome the low strength and
abrasion resistance of die stone.
Types:
1. Epoxy resin
2. Polyurethane
7
Advantages
 High strength
 High abrasion resistance
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Polymerization shrinkage of resin material so undersized die.
 Long setting time.
3. Ceramics (refractory die):
- Ceramic material mainly quartz silica (Least expansion)
- Can withstand very high temperatures without any distortion
- Special for construction of all-ceramics because it allows

porcelain to be built direct on the die.
4. Electroplated die:
Electrolytic deposition of a coat of pure metal on the impression
Advantages
1. High accuracy.
2. High strength.
3. High abrasion resistance.
4. Dimensional stability.
8
Die system:
Ideal requirements of a die system:
 the die should be easily removed and re-placed in its original

position
 the die must be stable when placed in the cast
 it should be easy to mount on the articulator
Working cast and die system:
1) Working cast and a separate die
2) Working cast with removable dies
3) Single Die
1. Working cast and separate die:

- It’s made by:
 Pouring impression twice or
 Making two impressions.
- If it was to be made by pouring the impression twice:
-> The first pour is to obtain the separate die (pouring the stone to
the side of prepared teeth in impression in small increments)
-> Then, the second pour is to obtain the full arch cast.
9
1 2 3 4
- So we obtain:
 Full arch cast for proximal contact and occlusion.
 Sectional cast (Separate die) for wax coping and margins.
- Advantages:
1) Easy to fabricate.  
2) Keeps relation between abutments fixed.  
3) Better contours and emergence profile while wax  pattern

fabrication.  
- Disadvantages:
1) Wax pattern must be transferred from die to cast:
-> destroy internal adaptation of wax
2) Sometimes difficult to seat wax pattern on the cast:
-> different impression
-> second pour (impression damaged)
-> different thickness of spacer.
10
2. Working cast with removable dies:
They are classified according to their design into:
a. Retained by pins:
 Dowel pin system
 Pindex system
b. Not retained by pins:
 Di-lock tray system
Requirements of Removable Dies:
1. The dies must return to their exact positions.

2. Dies are stable even when inverted and accurately related to
adjacent and opposing teeth.
3. Dies are removable individually.
- In this system a special type of working cast is prepared and the

dies are carefully sectioned so that the individual dies can be
removed and replaced in their original position in the cast.
- Description of pins structure:

- the upper part is serrated to increase the interlocking between
the pin and the gypsum
- the lower part (flat at one side and rounded on the other side to
prevent rotation ), may be:
 single: straight or curved
 two parts
- these pins are inserted in plastic sleeves to
prevent scratching of the die by the metal.
11
a. Dowel pin technique:
The dowel pin systems are prepared by two techniques:
1) pre-pour technique: Devices are oriented in the impression before

it is poured
2) post-pour technique: Attached to the underside of the cast that
has already been poured
pre-pour technique:
- the first pour is made (up to the level of

alveolar process) and before the material set
the pins are placed (parallel to the
longitudinal axis) and not touching the
occlusal surface
- At the sites that will be removed: a separating medium is placed
and the ends on the pins are marked by
sticky wax, and then the base is poured.
- At the sites that will not be removed:
paper clips are used to increase
interlocking.
- After the cast is set, dies are sectioned, the direction of
sectioning must be parallel or slight converged towards the base
(never to be diverged cervically).
12
Post-pour technique
Here, the cast is poured up to the level of the crowns of the teeth
in the impression.
Subsequently, small holes are drilled within the first pour in the
required places and the dowel pins are cemented into the holes
The remaining part of the cast is poured and the dies are sectioned
as described in the pre-pour technique.
b. Pindex system:
This system is similar to the post-pour

dowel pin technique.
Special drill press equipment is used to do

die sectioning.
The drill press has a platform with a slot

like opening throug h which the drill pin will
project during the procedure.
Technique:
1. Base of the cast is flat and smooth and parallel to the occlusal
plane
2. Cast is 15-20 mm thick from gingival crest to the base
3. Each segment must have at least 2 pins (Long pin toward facial,
Short pin toward lingual) for stability and to prevent rotation
4. Parallel pin channels are made, at least 5 mm apart (base is placed
on the drill, press and drill holes are prepared in the under
surface of the base (down penetration) of the cast using the pilot
light as a guide.)
13
5. Place sleeves on pins (stability of pins), and glue them in the

channels
6. Box and seal cast
7. Apply separating solution (Super-Sep)
8. Pour second base with yellow stone
9. After it sets: we section the dies
Die ditching (trimming):
After the die is obtained, we form a circumferential groove below the

finish line (0.5 mm) to imitate the normal contour of the natural root
for proper cervical contouring of the wax pattern.
This is done:
 Rotary: using pear shaped acrylic bur

 Manually: using excavator
Advantages:
1) Accentuate the finish line

2) Resembling the normal contour of the natural root for proper
cervical contouring of the wax pattern.
3) Produce smooth area gingival to the finish line
NB. The original contour of the tooth structure below the

margin must be preserved. Over trimming (dotted line)
will result in over contoured restoration
14
Die preparation:
1) Application of die hardener (occlusal sealer):

- Cover the entire die and extend beyond finish line
- Allow to set for 5 mins.
- Advantages: hardens stone, protect margins, seals and
waterproofs.
2) Application of spacer (relief agent):
- 20-40 microns to allow space for cement and to give a smooth
surface of the die (seals the irregularities)
- placed from 0.5-1 mm above the finish line
3) then the finish line is highlighted to not over or under extend the
margins of the wax pattern
4) separating medium to easily remove the wax pattern after its
formation.
c. Di – lock system:
In this technique, to pour the cast we use a special

tray (snap on tray), which have orientation
elevations which are translated on the cast as
grooves.
Impression is poured using two-pour technique: the

first pour is poured to fill the impression (U-shaped), and the second
pour is in the tray after positioning it over the impression.
The grooves on the base of the cast formed by the di-lock tray are
used as a guide to die sectioning and will ensure that the die will be
positioned correctly in its place after its removal.
15
3. Single die system:
it was used for the manufacturing of a single metallic crown, using

copper band techniques.
It’s not used nowadays.
Copper band are supplied in different sizes and diameter to fit for
anterior, premolars and molars.
Types of single dies:
1. Stone die
2. Amalgam die
3. Acrylic or epoxy die
4. Refractory die
5. Electroplated die (silver or copper)
16
Alloys
Alloys
Alloys selection:
The selection of alloy is made according to different procedures, for

example:
 Type of instrument
 Type of sprue
 Casting method
 Temperature
Alloys classification:
1. According to price (value):

They are classified into:
- Precious
- Semi-precious
- Non- precious
However, this method of classification is no longer used, since

the price of alloys and metals differ from one country to the
other.
2. According to nobility (reactivity with the surrounding

environment):
They are classified into:
- High noble (75% noble)
According to the percentage of noble metal
- Low noble (25% noble)
- Base metal
- Titanium alloys.
1
Alloys
 Noble metals: they do not form an oxide layer
 ruthenium (Ru)
 rhodium (Rh)
 palladium (Pd)
 silver (Ag) ¾ crowns are made
 osmium(Os) by gold only for
 iridium (Ir) good marginal
 platinum (Pt) adaptation
 gold (Au) –most noble metal, however it’s

not used alone due to being very soft and
ductile.
 titanium alloys:
 not commonly used in dentistry due to having high melting temp.

 used in manufacture of implants.
 Forms oxide layer once it interacts with the surrounding
environment (formed once only)  passivity
This oxide layer is:
 very adherent
 protects the rest of the alloy
 base metal alloys:
 the most widely used alloys in dentistry

 they have the main advantages:
 cheap
 easily used
2
Alloys
base metal alloys are selected according to the following properties:
1. tarnish and corrosion resistance.

2. Physical properties: such as tensile strength and fracture
strength (must be high)
For example: in long span bridge, there is bending movement in
the middle of the bridge which may cause its fracture, so the
tensile strength of the bridge must be high to resist the occlusal
forces.
NB. The connectors are the most common parts of the bridge to
be fractured.
3. Ductility: for marginal adaptation.
NB. Base metals have low ductility.
4. Castability: can produce fine details.
5. Color: most of base metals have grey color, however the yellow
color of gold is more preferred.
6. Can form oxide layer or not: for bonding with porcelain
As tin and indium (oxide layer forming metals).
7. coefficient of thermal expansion: should be close to (compatible
with) that of porcelain (CTE of porcelain is higher than that of
the alloy).
8. melting range: The melting range of the alloy should be higher
than the fusion temp. of porcelain.
9. should be specified by a well-known company.
3
Spruing
Spruing
A sprue former: is used to create channel or a series of channel in

the set investment material.
There are 3 basic requirement of a sprue former:
1. The sprue must allow the molten wax to escape from the mold
(wax elimination).
2. The sprue must enable the molten metal to flow into the mold
with as little turbulence as possible (casting).
3. The metal within it must remain molten slightly longer than
the alloy that has filled the mold. This provides a reservoir to
compensate for the solidification shrinkage that occurs during
casting.
Type of sprue former: *wax *metal *plastic
1. Wax sprue:
- Wax sprues are preferred for most casting as they melt at
the same rate as the pattern, thus allow easy escape of the
molten wax, leaving no residues.
- Prefabricated wax sprue formers are available with
different shape and gauges to meet the needs of individual
cases.
1
Spruing
2. Plastic sprue former:

- Can be useful when casting fixed partial dentures (FPDs) “in
terms of multi-units”, in one piece because their added
rigidity minimizes distortion.
- However, plastic sprues soften at a higher temperature than
the wax pattern with a greater potential for carbon residue
to remain in the mold.
Main disadvantages of plastic sprue:
 plastic undergoes more expansion than wax before softening, a

characteristic that may responsible for investment cracking.
 If the pathway for the escape of the molten wax is blocked by

“unmelted plastic”, the wax will overheat and boil = cracking of
the investment leading to rough surface of the cast.
* to overcome this problem, it is recommended to apply layer of

wax over the entire surface of the plastic sprue former to
produce an escape mechanism for the melting wax pattern. also,
hollow plastic sprue is available to permit wax escape.
3. Metal sprue:
- They are often hollow to increase the contact surface area and
Strengthen the attachment between the sprue & pattern.
They should be made of non-rusting metal to avoid possible
contamination of the wax.
They are usually removed from the investment before wax
elimination. special care must be taken to examine the orifice
for small particles of the investment that may break off when
such a sprue is removed because these can cause an incomplete
casting if detected.
2
Spruing
orientation of the wax pattern:
 All patterns must be positioned outside the hot spot or heat

centre of the ring.
 On the other hand, the resvoir or the runner bar should be
positioned in the centre of the ring to keep the alloy molten as
long as possible during casting. This allows for a continuous
supply of the molten alloy to the solidifying casting to
compensate for the casting shrinkage.
Properties/orientation of the sprue:
1. Attachment: ->Attached to the thickest portion of the pattern

“non- functioning cusp” to prevent distortion.
Away from the margins or occlusal contact .
 Attaching the sprue to thin areas will result in porosities in

thicker portions of the casting as the thinner areas solidify first
so preventing compensation of shrinkage at thicker portions
“shrinkage porosity “.
2. Angulation: -> the sprue former should not be placed

perpendicular to the flat surface in order to reduce the chance
of excessive turbulence during casting & subsequent porosity
formation.
3. length: -> the sprue former should allow 6-8 mm left between
end of the casting ring & wax pattern in case of gypsum bonded
investment and 3-4 mm in case of phosphate bonded
investment. (this position allows easy escape of the gas from
the mould and prevents fracture of the investment during
casting).
3
Spruing
4. length of the sprue: -> very short sprue < 2mm must be avoided
as it may place the mould space too far from the end of the
ring, so the gases can’t escape easily resulting in backpressure
porosity.
 very long sprue > 6mm must be avoided as the molten metal
inside the sprue may solidify first preventing full mould
feeding by the molten alloy.
5. Sprue former diameter: -> a sprue of sufficient size should be
selected to supply the volume of alloy required of the pattern
to be cast. In general, a relatively large diameter sprue is
recommended because this improves the flow of molten metal
into the mold and ensures a reservoir during solidification.
 with indirect spruing, the reservoir should be equal or larger
than the thickest cross-sectional area of the largest pattern
(this requirement is especially critical when metal pontics and
large molar retainers are sprued).
 when using air pressure casting machines a narrow sprue is
essential.
The reservoir: a gauge bar or round ball which is positioned in the

heating centre (hotspot) of the ring. this permits the reservoir to
remain molten longer, and enables it to furnish alloy to the patterns
until they complete the solidification process. the resvoir must have
the largest mass of the sprue system, allows compensation of the
alloy solidification shrinkage.
4
Spruing
Venting: small auxiliary sprues or vents have been recommended to

improve casting of thin patterns, their action is to:
 Help gases escape during casting

 ensure that solidification begins in critical areas by acting as a
heat sink.
 Prevent perforation of thin walled surface due to incomplete
compensation of casting shrinkage
Constricted spruing: it’s tapering the sprue former at its attachment

to the wax pattern rather than flaring this area.
-> the taper is thought to permit the sprue former to function as

true reservoir, thereby decreasing the likelihood of suck-back
porosity. It may be helpful in the mold filling process of low density
base metal alloys but not those of high density.
NB. The greater the density of alloy, the greater the sprue pattern
access must be.
Casting ring and liner:
- casting ring holds the investment in place during setting and

restricts expansion of the mold .
-resilient liner is placed inside the ring leaving 2-3mm at both ends
to allow for supporting contact of the investment with the ring.
5
Spruing
- wetting the liner increases hydroscopic expansion of the the mould

and prevent the liner from absorbing the investment liquid and
alternating the water powder ratio.
-ring liner is made from cellulose material or fiber glass. asbestos

was used but owing to its carcinogenic potential, it is not used
anymore.
aim of using resilient liner:
1. Allows different types of investment expansion (acts as a cushion)

2. Facilitates venting during casting procedure.
3. Facilitates removal of the investment block after casting.
4. Prevents distortion of the pattern by permitting to outward
expansion of the mould.
Ringless investment:
With the use of higher–strength, phosphate bonded –investment the

ringless technique has become quite popular. the method uses a
paper or plastic casting ring and is designed to allow unrestricted
expansion.
Spruing of multiple casting:
- When more than 2 units are being cast together, each is joined to
a runner bar. A single sprue is used to feed the runner bar.
- Two units may be cast with a runner bar or each unit may be fed
from a separate sprue.
6
Spruing
Spruing methods: direct or indirect
a. Direct spruing:
- the flow of the molten metal is straight (direct) from the

casting crucible to the pattern area in the ring.
- it requires less time and effort than the indirect method.
- a straight sprue former is attached to the thickest path of the
wax pattern at one end and secured to the crucible former at the
other. the sprue former can be modified by placing a ball or round
reservoir between the pattern and the bottom. Direct spruing is
used most frequently for small units or small multiunit patterns.
- Disadvantage of direct spruing: the potential for suck back

porosity at the junction of the restoration and the sprue.
b. Indirect spruing:
- The molten alloy doesn’t flow directly from the casting crucible
into the pattern area in the heated mould.
- the casting alloy takes a circuitous (indirect) route before it
reaches the pattern area this called indirect spruing.
- the connector or runner bar is often a large in diameter, round
wax to which the wax pattern sprue formers are attached on one
side with 2 large sprue formers on the other side. the bars large
volume houses molten metal so the pattern area fill with metal
first and are able to draw upon the reservoir, if additional alloy is
needed due to solidification shrinkage.
Consequently, the connector “runner “bar is often referred to as a
“reservoir” bar.
7
Spruing
- Although direct spruing can produce acceptable results, in many

instances, indirect spruing offers advantages such as greater
predictability and reliability in casting + enhanced control of
solidification shrinkage.
NB.
- The composition of an alloy will influence the manner in which it
fills the mold. for instance a palladium silver alloy fills the mold
unidirectionally, whereas, type 3 gold fills in random “scattered”
fasluion)
- Expansion of wax during heating = shrinkage of alloy during
cooling “solidification shrinkage”.
- A wax sprue could result in imitability when handling the wax
pattern thus a plastic or metal sprue is preferable when handling a
multiple unit wax pattern.
- Direct spruing is used for Nobel metal alloys and indirect spruing
is for base metal alloy as it allows the oxides to be removed / lost
on the way to the casting unit.
-sprue attachment in anteriors should be away from line angles to
avoid distortion. Spruing is easier for anteriors as only a thin
coping layer needs to obtained “thickest at the incisal edge”.
- Oven heating:
wax elimination
thermal expansion of the investment
-Emax pressing: using a ceramic ingot which has multiple shades

“ombré” to mimic the natural tooth appearance (aesthetics), darker
shade at the cervical 1/3 with graduating lighter shades towards the
incisal edge.
8
Casting and investing
Casting and Investing
Casting:
Casting procedure in short (lost wax technique):
wax pattern spruing investing
recovery and
cleaning of casting burn out
casting
Casting assembly:
1
1. Crucible former: it’s the part to which the sprue is attached, and
it helps in guiding the flow of the molten metal.
They are available as rubber, metal or plastic
2. Casting ring: they may be:

 Metallic: (have different sizes according
to no. of crowns to be made) can enter the
furnace, used mainly with GBI
 Plastic: can’t enter the furnace, used in ringless technique
(with phosphate-bonded investment material)
NB. Ringless technique: it’s used with
 base metal alloys of high melting temp. as it allows

unrestricted expansion, to compensate the shrinkage of the alloy.
 pressing of ceramics
importance of the ring:

a. Enclose/box the investment material
b. Restriction of the expansion of the investment
3. Ring liner: a compressible material placed in the fitting surface of

the ring to allow for more expansion, used with metallic rings.
Materials used as liners:
a. Traditionally: asbestos (carcinogenic)
b. Cellulose (paper) liner
c. Aluminum silicate ceramic liner.
2
NB.
EW CASTING LINER is an asbestos-free liner for dental casting

rings that provides an optimal buffer to allow for total expansion, while
achieving accurate castings and reducing the likelihood of cracking.
This product is made of high-temperature, non-hazardous, hydrous
calcium silicate fiberglass material
- Functions of ring liners:

 Acts as a cushion (allows mold expansion “by setting
expansion”)
 Allows easy removal of investment after casting (divesting)
 Aids in wax/gas escape (venting).
NB.
- We may use more than one liner for more venting and
expansion.
- Do not squeeze the liner against the ring to prevent

expansion restriction.
- Techniques for using liners:

1. Absorbent dry liner technique: through which the dry liner
absorbs water from the investment giving a thicker mix of the
investment material thus higher expansion (setting expansion)
2. Wet liner technique: through which the investment material
absorbs water from the wet liner (hydroscopic expansion).
NB. Hydroscopic expansion is

double linear (normal setting)
Thermal > hydroscopic > setting
3
expansion.
Investing:
solidification shrinkage (from liquid to

solid) and cooling shrinkage (from very
high to low temp.) cooling shrinkage is
more compensated by investment
material, while solidification shrinkage
by sprue
Features of an ideal investment material:
1. Controllable expansion to compensate precisely for shrinkage of

cast alloy during cooling
2. The ability to produce smooth casting with accurate surface
reproduction without nodules
3. Chemical stability at high casting temperatures
4. Adequate strength to resist casting forces
5. Sufficient porosity to allow for gas escape
6. Easy recovery of the casting.
Types of investment material:
There are three types:  Gypsum bonded
 Phosphate bonded
 silica bonded
4
a. Gypsum bonded investment: mainly used with gold alloys, not used
with base metal as it can’t withstand the high melting temp.
(causes fracture and chemical decomposition)
Formed of:
1. Binder: gypsum
2. Refractory material: silica (in the form of quartz or
cristobalite, and is responsible for the thermal expansion)
Properties:
1. Weak
2. Can’t withstand temp. higher than 650, so used with gold
alloys
3. High porosity (more porous than phosphate bonded investment)
Types of expansion:
1. Setting expansion (bench expansion): expansion of the material

after mixing with water, without immersing it in water or placing
it at high temperature, it is affected by:
 Use of less water  increases setting expansion
 Usage of additional ring liner  increases setting expansion
 Increasing mixing time  increases setting expansion
2. Hygroscopic expansion: expansion which occurs when the ring is

immersed in water after the initial setting.
NB. A wet ring liner contributes to hydroscopic expansion.
5
3. Thermal expansion: expansion occurs when the mold is heated to

eliminate the wax.
The silica refractory material is principally responsible for this
because of the solid-state phase reaction (changing form  to
 form)
b. Phosphate bonded investment (universal):

Formed of:
1. Binder: magnesium oxide and ammonium phosphate.
2. Refractory material: silica
Properties:
1. Strong: can withstand high force, and difficult to break

2. Can withstand high temperature: up to 1200-1500
3. Less porous than gypsum bonded investment
4. Gives higher expansion than gypsum bonded investment
NB.
- Phosphate bonded investment is used with base metals as it can

withstand high temperature, and have high expansion which
compensate the shrinkage of the alloy.
- The expansion of phosphate bonded investment can be controlled
by mixing it with:
 water: gives less expansion
 colloidal silica: gives higher expansion
6
Phosphate bonded investment can be classified into:
carbon containing: it gives the investment some sort of

brittleness which allows it to break easily during divesting. This
type of phosphate bonded investment is used with palladium
containing alloys. However, it’s not used with base metal alloys as
carbon residue affects the final alloy composition.
carbon free: used with base metal alloys (it’s considered better
than carbon containing phosphate bonded investment).
Types of expansion:
1. Setting expansion: it’s affected by:
 Heat from the setting reaction  increases setting expansion
 Mixing the powder with colloidal silica  increases setting
expansion
2. Thermal expansion: expansion occurs when the mold is heated
to eliminate the wax.
The silica refractory material is principally responsible for this
because of the solid-state phase reaction (changing form  to
 form)
Position of wax pattern in the ring:
 single crown: should be centered in the ring, equidistant from its

walls (to provide uniform expansion)
 multiple wax patterns: large ring (oval ring), and the wax patterns
are placed near the center of the ring.
7
Investment bridge:
It’s the distance from the end of wax pattern to the end of the ring.
In gypsum bonded investment: thick investment bridge, since this type

of investment is weak and very porous. (6-8mm), to withstand the
entrance of the metal, and since this material is porous it will allow the
escape of the metal
In phosphate bonded investment: thin investment bridge is used (3-

4mm), since the material is strong and less porous.
Investment material preparation:
- mixing Powder + water hand mixing, then
In GBI Each 100gmpowder -> 26-27ml water Vacuum mixing (flowy mix)
- bench setting for 20-30 mins then placing the ring in burn out
furnace
- place on the vibrator, to remove any air bubbles.
- Then remove excess material and crucible former
for proper adaptation of the investment material on the wax pattern:
 apply surfactant (wetting agent) on the wax pattern to reduce

the surface tension
 brush technique
 vacuum mixing
8
NB.
If the investment is not cast immediately to any reason (it shouldn’t be

left outside more than 1 hour. However, it should be placed in a
humidor (100% humidity)
 in air -> evaporation of water.
 hygroscopic expansion.
{same concept of syneresis and imbibition of an impression material}.
Burn out:
for wax elimination, and thermal expansion of the investment.
- To start wax elimination, the mold is set upside down, with the
sprue hole placed downward (in the furnace) at first for
approximately half an hour, so that all the wax is eliminated.
- To start the wax elimination procedure:
1. set the furnace to to a temp. of 200-250C and hold it for
around 30 mins. During this time, most wax is eliminated.
2. Then, raise the temp. gradually to either 480C or 650C
- 480 -> corresponds to the low heat technique.
- 650 -> corresponds to the high heat technique.
NB. For any method of those to be used, once the desired temp.
respective for each technique is reached, a plateau is held (constant
temp.) This temp. should be held for 45 mins (heat soak).
The heat soak ensures the investment remains at the desired high
temp. for casting, as if it gradually cools down, there will be premature
solidification of the alloy, leading to incomplete casting.
9
- Accelerated casting technique:
-> An investment material that has rapid setting, i.e. 15 mins
-> The furnace is preheated and used at 800-815C for 30 mins
the overall process takes 45 mins only. While the conventional

technique could take around one and a half to 2 hour.
-> used to manufacture custom made post and core
-> This technique is only possible with phosphate bonded and not
gypsum bonded investment since Gypsum bonded investment,
undergoes thermal decomposition at temp. > 650C
NB.
Full wave elimination and complete heat soak is indicated by a cherry

red color  ready for casting.
Means of compensation for casting shrinkage, is achieved by the

investment:
 Low heat technique (hygroscopic expansion) at 480C

 High heat technique (thermal expansion, involving the
transformation of silica form  to ) -> displacive transformation.
 Setting expansion happens anyways.
> Low- heat technique is preferred as there is less chance of
formation of carbide/toxic byproducts.
10
Hysteresis: a phenomenon, whereby the investment material undergoes

“expansion” during heating at a different rate/quality, compared to its
contraction during cooling (if it was reheated).
If expansion and contraction during heating and cooling respectively

had the same value, there will be intense “crack propagation” in the
investment. This takes place more likely if the investment is not cast
immediately and so needs re heating. However, it gives less expansion
than the first heating. Prevented by heat soak.
NB.
On cooling, the binder and refractory material have a different

thermal contraction curve than the thermal expansion curve. On
reheating it won’t expand thermally to the previous level.
For casting of the alloy, we require:
1. A heat source (melting the alloy).

2. Pressure.
3. Force.
The casting equipment consists of:
1. A heat source to melt the alloy.

2. Casting force high enough to overcome the high surface tension
of the molten metal and the resistance of gases within the mold
3. Heating source (heat-electric source)
11
1. heat:
Gas-air torch Gas-oxygen torch
 Nobel metal alloys  Base-metal alloys

(gold alloys) also  Metal ceramic
called: conventional alloy in a higher
alloys, low fusing melting range of
alloys 1200C (to
 Provide a temp. less withstand the
than 1000C firing temp. of
porcelain)
The heat emission  multi-orifice tip (for better heat distribution)
 single-orifice tip
zones of blow torch flame:
1. inner most (mixing) zone: no heat, colorless.

2. Combustion (green) zone: oxidizing
3. Blue zone (reducing zone): for heating
4. Outermost (oxidizing zone): reddish zone, low heat and contains
oxides.
12
blue/reducing zone of the torch:

 hottest part of the flame.
 reduction: in term of no oxidation.
Metal colors during heating:
Red -> Orange -> white (dull) -> white (mirror like)
Fluxes:
A flux is used with molten gold alloys as it increases their fluidity (

the flow of the molten alloy), prevents oxidation and eliminates or 
porosities.
Examples: Borax in boric acid.

Used with gold alloys
Powdered charcoal.
The previous fluxes can’t be used with base metals, since charcoal may
cause discoloration of the base metal, and borax is not sufficient to
remove all the oxides form the base metal.
So flouride fluxes + borax are used with base metals.
13
2. Electric:
convection from a heating muffle or by generation of an induction

current in the alloy.
By creation of an electric arc resistance or induction (heat energy is

produced when electric current passes through a conductor
depending on the voltage applied across it).
Heating can be evenly controlled, which prevents undesirable

changes in the alloy composition caused by volatilization of the
elements with lower melting points.
The electric machines are expensive and more appropriate for larger
dental laboratories.
Types of casting machines:
Crucible (melting/casting crucible):
Graphite (carbon) Ceramic crucible:

crucible:
For both base metals
Suitable only for melting and noble metal alloys.
noble metal alloys, to
prevent undesirable
reactions (formation of
carbides that result in
embrittlement of the
alloy).
14
1. Centrifugal casting machine: the alloy is melted in a separate

crucible by a torch flame and then cast into the mould by
centrifugal force.
2. Air-pressure casting machine: the alloy is molten in a crucible

followed by applied air pressure.
- 2 compartments:  high pressure

 low pressure
- the molten alloy flows from the high pressure compartment to
the low pressure compartment.
- The crucible is built in the casting machine and so the melting of
the alloy takes place insitu (mostly electric melting)
- Used with gold alloys.
3. Induction casting machine: by creation of an induction field

around the crucible surrounded by water cooled metal tubing.
- it provides the required pressure and temp. for melting the alloy.
- The speed of heating obtained with induction casting machines
greatly reduces the problem of air oxidation.
- More commonly used for melting base metal alloys
15
4. Vacuum/pressure casting: especially for titanium alloys.

Alloy is heated to the casting temp. drawn into the evacuated
molded by gravity or vacuum and subjected to additional pressure
to force the alloy into the mold.
Why do we use pressure (casting force):
1. To overcome the high surface energy of the metal

2. To push the gases in the mold towards the pores of the
investment.
Casting Defects:
Casting defects are attributed to poor casting technique and failure to

adhere to casting laws.
General causes of the defective casting:
1. Sprue is too thick causing premature entrance of the metal to

the mold without enough pressure -> premature solidification,
resulting in incomplete filling of the mold
2. Too cold ring (no heat soak) -> premature solidification of the
alloy causing no casting or incomplete casting
3. The metal sprue isn’t removed before burn out -> no space
(channel) for the metal to enter.
4. No proper heating
5. Insufficient pressure
6. Too much pressure -> fracture or crack ->no casting
16
The difference between incomplete and no casting
 No casting: the shape of the crown (restoration) wasn’t even

formed (due to crack or fraction)
Causes:
1. Investment fragment
2. Metal sprue not removed
3. Too thick sprue with premature entrance and solidification
before pressure
 Incomplete casting: may be in form of perforation or defect in

the shape of the crown (restoration)
NB. Defect in the margin may be in form of:
- Concavity
- Convexity
- Roughness
Causes of incomplete casting:
1. The wax pattern is too thin (especially at the margins)

2. Incomplete wax elimination (leaving clumps of wax)
3. Incomplete venting (wax vapor): acts as a counteracting pressure
on the entrance molten alloy during casting -> concave margin
17
4. Cold ring (insufficient heating / left to cool for a long time

before casting), causes premature solidification-> convex margin
5. Small fragments (usually form the investment) in the mould
leading to perforations or rough (irregular) margin
6. Insufficient amount of alloy to completely fill the mould
NB. The alloy required for complete casting should be weighed
and a sufficient number of alloy ingots are to be heated.
7. Improper (inadequate) heating -> convex margins
8. Inadequate pressure -> convex defect due to premature
solidification
Defects by addition:
1. Roughness: found on the external surface, small in

size and multiple
Causes:
 related to the wax pattern:
o No proper finishing of the wax pattern (rough wax pattern)
o No enough surfactant used: the investment forms clumps on
the surface of the wax pattern
o Excess surfactant used: causes the formation of a gap
between the wax pattern and the investment to be filled by
excess wax
18
 related to the investment:
o Cracks / irregularities on the internal (fitting) surface of the

investment.
o Increasing the water/powder ratio of the investment material
-> weak investment which cracks upon casting the alloy (esp. in
GBI)
o Over heating:
 sulphides release (gypsum bonded investment)
 carbides release (carbon containing phosphate bonded
investment)
o Improper mixing of the investment material
o Overheating of the alloy during casting, thus creates cracks
during its impaction and contact with the investment-mold
interface
2. Nodules: larger in size and less in number than the roughness

Causes:
1. Improper brush technique
2. No surfactant Small nodules
3. Improper mixing (no vacuum mixing)

4. No vibration or excess vibration
large nodules
5. Air trapped during investment
procedure
NB. If the nodules are in the fitting surface or margin and upon
removal result in perforation, the crown (restoration) needs remaking
19
3. Fins:
Mainly due to crack in the investment
What causes the investment to crack:
1. Wax pattern is very close to the edge of

investment (thin investment bridge)
2. Expired or non-properly stored investment
3. Weak mix (increase water), especially in GBI
4. Burning out before complete setting of the
investment (premature heating)
5. Too rapid heating, which results in trauma to
the investment, thus gradual temp. rise is more preferred.
6. Dropping the mold
7. Too much pressure of the entering alloy
8. Hygroscopic expansion = immersing the investment for a long
time, resulting in a very wet ring which will cause crack formation
upon heating
9. Hysteresis due to the differences in the expansion and
contraction rates of the investment, this is due to:
-> heating the ring (expansion)
-> allowing the ring to cool (however it should be cast

immediately) which causes contraction
-> a hot ring is needed for casting (so it’s reheated)
this will lead to cracks formation
20
Negative defects:
1. suck back porosity: due to premature alloy solidification
causes:
1. too narrow, long sprue

2. big mold
3. incomplete venting
4. improper pattern position
2. inclusion porosity:
due to entrapment of small fragments in the
mould (mainly form the investment)
3. gas inclusion porosity: entrapped gas

causes:
1. improper venting -> wax vapor remains in the mold
2. over-heating the investment in the burn out furnace:
-> Sulphur release in GBI
-> carbon-dioxide and carbides release in carbon containing PBI
3. using the oxidizing red zone not the blue reducing zone
which causes oxides formation
21
4. back pressure porosity: a factor leading to pressure
causes:
1. incomplete gas / wax elimination

2. improper venting due to:
-> the use of non-porous investment with a thick mix
-> the use of investment bridge of a non-porous investment

material (PBI)
3. insufficient casting pressure
other types of defects:
discoloration:
due to:
1. sulphate from gypsum (due to over heating)

2. carbon: from
carbon containing PBI
crucible former
 torch
3. formation of oxides due to using the wrong zone during heating
dimensional changes:
due to non-compatibility between the alloy shrinkage and investment

expansion leading to oversized or undersized restorations (crowns)
22
marginal discrepancy:
causes:
1. wax pattern distortion

2. uneven expansion
Casting laws: (read):
 Law no 1:
Sprue former is attached to the thickest part of the wax pattern
Molten alloy should flow from areas of greater volume to
areas of lesser volume (i.e. margins).
Violation of this law will lead to → short margins and incomplete castings.
 Law no 2:
Orient wax patterns such that the margins are facing the ring trailing edge
when the ring is in the casting machine
Violation of this law will lead to → short margins
 Law no 3:
The wax pattern is placed in the cold zone and the
reservoir in the heat zone of the casting ring.
Cold zone → the coolest part of the ring present at the ring end and at the
periphery.
Heat zone → the hottest part of the ring present in the center.
23
The amount of investment covering the wax should be no more
then 6 mm at the end and periphery of the ring.
Violation of this law will lead to → shrinkage porosity.
 Law no 4:
The reservoir should be equal or greater than the thickest cross-sectional

area of the wax pattern
Violation of this law will lead to → shrinkage porosity and/or suck back
porosity.
 Law no 5:
Do not cast a button if a runner bar or other internal reservoir is used
A button can draw available molten alloy from the runner bar → shift the
heat center and reduce the feed of metal to the restorations.
So the amount of alloy needed will be determined according to the weight of

the wax pattern and sprue system only.
Violation of this law will lead to → shrinkage porosity, distortion during

porcelain firing and suck back porosity.
 Law no 6:
Eliminate turbulence
Pathway for the flow of metal should be smooth, gradual with no sharp turns,
restrictions or points that leads to:
Turbulence and occluding air.
Increase rate of flow of metal and abrading the mold surface (mold wash)
24
Violation of this law will lead to → Voids in casting (surface or subsurface

pitting and porosity)
Mold wash (surface pits and incomplete margins)
 Law no 7:
Casting ring should have sufficient length and diameter to accommodate the
wax pattern to be invested
Wax pattern should be 6mm away from the end of the ring,6 mm apart from
each other and 9mm from the ring liner.
If too little investment → alloy break through the mold.
If too much investment → air will not escape and the wax pattern will be
placed in the heat zone.
Violating this law, Shrinkage porosity and Back pressure porosity will lead to
→ Mold fracture, Fins.
 Law no 8:
Increase the wettability of the wax pattern
Apply wetting agent to wax pattern and leave it to dry.
If too little wetting agent → investment will not wet properly and inclusion
of air will occur.
If too much wetting agent → weaken the investment → bubbles and fins.
Violating this law will lead to → Bubbles, Nodules, Rough casting and Fins.
25
 Law no 9:
Correct water-powder ratio
Less liquid → thick investment → increased expansion
→ loose fitting casting.
More liquid → thin investment → decreased expansion →
tight fitting casting.
Violating this law will lead to → ill-fitting casting.
 Law no 10:
Mix the phosphate bonded investment under vacuum to eliminate air and
ammonia gas by-product
Areas of the mold that contain dense, bubble free investment will expand
differently from areas containing large voids.
Violating this law will lead to → Surface nodules, Weak mold and Distortion
of casting.
 Law no 11:
Casting investment should set completely before initiating burn out
Procedure
If the ring is placed in burn out furnace before the end of the setting time
→ weak mold that cannot withstand steam expansion during burn out.
Violating this law will lead to → Mold cracking → Fins or Mold blowout and
fracture.
26
 Law no 12:
Use a wax elimination technique that is specific to the type of
patterns involved (Wax or plastic)
Plastic sprues need to be heated slowly → gradual softening with no pressure

on mold.
Use two stage burnout with low rate of temperature rise (allow for uniform
expansion with no plastic residues).
Violating this law will lead to → Short margins, Mold cracks and Casting fins.
 Law no 13:
Adequate heat used to properly melt and cast the alloy
Too little heating caused by improperly adjusted torch) → prolonged heating

→ decreased fluidity of the alloy → decrease mold filling and compensation
of heat loss.
Too much heat or too high temperature → burn off minor alloy elements
through vaporization and/or oxidation.
Violating this law will lead to → Incomplete casting and Short margins (Low
heat) OR Rough casting and investment breakdown (High heat).
 Law no 14:
Use the reducing zone and not the oxidizing zone of the casting torch.
Using the reducing zone → decrease metal oxidation, decrease gas

absorption and ensures proper melt.
Violating this law will lead to → Gas porosity and/or change in the alloy
coefficient of thermal expansion due to alloy contamination).
27
 Law no 15:
Provide enough force to cause the liquid alloy to flow into the heated mold
Lower density metals generally need 4 winds (rotations) of a centrifugal arm

as compared to higher density gold based alloys.
Violating this law will lead to → Incomplete casting and short margins (Low
force) OR mold fracture and fins (High force)
 Law no 16:
Do not quench the ring immediately after casting
The alloy and investment should cool to room temperature.
Uneven cooling between the alloy and investment → apply tensile forces to
the casting and the restoration could tear.
Violating this law may lead to → Hot tears in the restoration.
 Law no 17:
Cast towards the margins of the wax patterns
In a centrifugal casting machine, the metal will flow downward and to the
right, taking advantage of the centrifugal, rotational and gravitational
forces on the molten alloy.
Violating this law will lead to → Cold shuts, Short margins and incomplete
castings.
28
Finishing of cast restoration:
After devesting, the surface of the restoration is relatively rough, and

so a series of finishing procedures are needed to produce a highly
polished axial surface. Such surfaces “polished and smooth”, are
needed to limit the retention and accumulation of plaque to maintain
the health of the supporting periodotal tissues.
Instruments:
1. Straight hand piece

2. Carbide burs + shank
3. Discs: for removing the sprue
4. Finishing rubber cups: for porcelain
5. Caliber: to check the thickness
NB. Finishing of the restoration should be done under magnification, to

check margin adaptation and finish line.
Zones of the crown:
Finishing is done in specific sequence, so we can know the origin of the

defect without damaging the restoration. So the crown is divided into
several zones as the following.
29
Zone (1): internal margin
- If a defect occurs in the marginal area, the restoration must be

remade. This would necessitate an additional visit to make a new
impression.
{defects can be avoided or minimized by paying particular attention to

the wax pattern at the margins and through careful investing}
- Small nodules would prevent a casting from seating completely (in

the lab, the stone could be scraped off easily allowing seating,
but this won’t be the case for fitting in the patient’s mouth)
- If the small nodules are far away from the margins, they could be
removed easily under a microscope using a small rotary
instrument (No. 0.5 round bur).
- Great care is needed to avoid marginal damage and loosely fitting
crown.
Zone (2): internal surface
- No excessive contact / pressure areas should exist between the

die and the internal surface. Enough space should be left for the
luting agent to spread evenly.
- Under normal circumstances, a castings’ internal surface doesn’t
require finishing. However, small nodules could exist, which
prevent seating of the crown. These nodules should be removed
(relieved) and no force should be exerted in fitting / seating the
cast crown on the die as it would result in abrasion of the die but
won’t allow seating on the prepared tooth.
30
- Close examination of the internal surface will reveal any nodules

which should be removed before the cementation process
- Care must be taken not to seat a faulty die repeatedly as it will
abrade the casting
- Removing the material randomly from the internal surface of any
casting is unacceptable as it will lead to loss of resistance and
retention form
 the restoration requires a remake.
Marking agents “fit checker”:
Agents as water soluble dyes, powdered sprays etc. could be added in a

thin film in the fitting surface of the casting and used later to identify
the location of the nodules and pressure areas later using a microscope
The area/point form where the marking agent was ripped / removed
identifies the site for relief using a small carbide bur.
{the internal surface. However, should be entirely cleaned before the

luting procedure}
zone (3): the sprue
- To re-establish proper coronal structure and function, the sprue

must be sectioned and the casting must be recontoured in the
area of its attachment. (sprue is attached to the thickest non-
functional cusps)
- Once the fit of the casting has been verified on the die, the
sprue is sectioned using a carborundum separating disc.
31
- Cutting should be done circumferentially with a small area

maintained in the center of the sprue. To break this last
connection, it’s twisted and separated from the casting. Any
excess in the area of the sprue attachment is removed with the
cutting / separating disc and the area is refined with stones and
sandpaper discs.
Zone (4): proximal contacts
- The proximal contact areas should be placed correctly or slightly

more tight
- Special care is needed to ensure that finishing procedures don’t
produce an over reduced and inadequately fitting proximal
contact (although it can be corrected with soldering, it’s a time-
consuming and unnecessary procedure)
- A slightly excessive contact could be corrected clinically
- The proximal contacts on the stone cast can be minimally relieved
by careful scraping of the adjacent die with a scalpel
- When 2 adjacent crowns / castings are made, they shouldn’t be
simultaneously adjusted for seating. the proximal contacts should
be left slightly too tight in the lab. Such multiple casts should be
evaluated individually and sequentially. Adjustments are made for
each casting individually and then checked simultaneously.
- To adjust the proximal contacts, a thin articulating film is placed
between the adjacent castings or between the casting and
adjacent tooth. Adjustments then can be done selectively where
marking result.
32
In case of bridge:
 The connectors of partial fixed prosthesis, requires special

attention.
 They should be adequately and highly polished and contoured to
ensure the periodontal health is not adversely affected.
 Rotary instruments as rubber wheels which allows access to the
cervical aspect of the connectors are essential for finishing
(however, cervical finishing of the connectors would be difficult
in case of root proximity)
Zone (5): occlusal surface
- Occlusal contacts should be established in static and dynamic

relationships (centric and eccentric)
- Highly polished occlusal surfaces are not required, the occlusal
form must ensure potential stability and satisfy all functional
requirements.
- The occlusal contacts are checked with thin articulating paper /
film to ensure they match the design in the waxing stage
- Occlusal adjustments can be performed with a small finishing bur
or stone “flame-shaped”, a large stone would create unwanted
concavities
- The correct technique for occlusal adjustment is to re-develop
the entire anatomy of the ridge or cusp rather than grinding only
the point of interference.
33
- A metal caliber (also known as thickness gauge) is used to monitor

the metal thickness, otherwise, excess clearance would result in
metal perforation
- Polishing paste and brushes could be used for obtaining a smooth
external surface (polishing however, is of primary importance in
zones 6 and 7 “in terms of axial surface” to prevent plaque
accumulation)
Zone (6): axial walls
- Axial walls should be well finished, smoothly contoured and highly

polished, enabling optimum plaque control
- Surface defects are removed by grinding with abrasive particles
(on a rubber wheel / paper disc or an abrasive paste)
- The most efficient method of polishing is to use a sequence of
progressively finer abrasives
NB.
Finishing should be done in one direction to ensure the debris

doesn’t enter into the scratches and get embedded.
The instruments must be kept rotating.
34
Zone (7): external margin
- The objective of all cast restoration finishing is a highly polished

metal surface without ledges or steps as the transition is made
from the restoration to the unprepared tooth
- Where access allows, the cavo surface margins should be finished
directly on the tooth. However, the crucial areas where access
for finishing is restricted (proximally or sub-gingivally) are
subjected to plaque accumulation
- The parts of the margin that can’t be finished on the tooth, are
finished on the die
- Excessive finishing would affect how much material can be
removed from the casting surface without compromising the
ultimate fit and emergence profile of the restoration
- The edge of the margin can’t be distorted during finishing,
although burnishing would improve the marginal fit, but only when
softer alloys are used
- For porcelain bonding: a slightly rough surface is required, this
could be achieved by sandblasting using alumina particles
- Sandblasting is followed by cleaning (ultrasonic / steam cleaner)
to remove the alumina particles embedded in the micro-porosities
created during the process
- Porcelain oxides bond chemically to the oxides of the metal
framework.
35
- High gold alloys: contain tin, indium and iron as trace elements to
create the required oxide layer
- Base metal alloys: can already form the required oxide layer for
bonding, but if it becomes too thick, failure takes place (if the
oxidation process is too long)
- The oxidation / degassing process should be performed according
to manufacturer’s instructions
NB. Gold alloys generally take longer time to obtain the required
oxide layer compared to base metals.
Bridges:
Example: simple bridge (2 retainers + pontic)
 Rocking of one of the retainers, the fitting surface should be

checked for seating and stability
 Check each retainer individually
 Apply the soluble marker to identify the area for relief. (if the
die spacer is scraped off the die, it’s an indication of the
pressure area)
 If the relation is totally distorted due to wax pattern disruption,
a remake is required.
 Solution  section the retainers from the pontic, then adjust the
relation with soldering.
36
Metal-Ceramic restoration (PFM)
Metal Ceramic restorations
(porcelain fused to metal)
metal-ceramic restorations combine the strength and accuracy of the

cast metal, with the esthetics of porcelain. There are two reasons for
the acceptance of the metal ceramic restorations:
1. They are more resistant to fracture than the traditional all

ceramic crowns.
2. It is the only dependable means of fabricating an esthetic fixed
partial denture when full coverage is required on one or both
retainers.
Structure:
The metal-ceramic restoration is composed of metal casting or coping

(metal framework), which fit over the tooth preparation and ceramic
that is fused to the coping.
-> if the porcelain covers all the surfaces of metal -> full veneered
crown
-> if the porcelain in applied only on the esthetic area -> veneered
crown
Layers of porcelain: Due to presence of

oxides of refractory
1. Opaque porcelain: index different than

that other components
- Conceals (masks) the metal -> scattering of light
underneath
- initiates the development of the shade
1
- plays an important role in the development

of the bond between the ceramic and the metal
2. Dentine (body) porcelain
- make up the bulk of the restoration

- providing most of the color, or shade.
3. Enamel, or incisal porcelain
- imparts translucency to the restoration (in incisal edge and

proximal contacts).
NB. These areas are not supported by dentin so they have higher
translucency than the other parts of enamel
Requirement of alloys used for metal-ceramic restorations:
1. coefficient of thermal expansion: The coefficient of thermal

expansion of the metal and porcelain must be compatible.
However, there should be slight difference in the coefficient of
thermal expansion. The optimum difference between the two
would be no greater than 1 x 10-6 C. properly designed coping and
slightly higher coefficient of thermal expansion for the coping
than for the porcelain veneered over it, will avoid production of
shear stress that lead to failure of the bond between the
porcelain and the metal.
2
NB.
If the coefficient of thermal expansion of porcelain is much higher

than that of metal -> fracture of porcelain
If the coefficient of thermal expansion of metal is much higher

than that of porcelain -> de-bonding
2. Melting range of the alloy: The melting range of the alloy used in
the coping must be 170 to 280 C higher than the fusing
temperature of the porcelain applied to it. If the difference
between the two materials is less than 170 distortion (sagging)
or melting of the coping will occur during firing and glazing of the
porcelain. The greater the difference, the fewer the problems
that encountered during firing.
3. Rigidity (stiffness / modulus of elasticity) of the metal: The
metal should be rigid enough i.e. should not flex during seating or
when subjected to occlusal forces. Any flexing will lead to
shearing of the porcelain.
NB.
The rigidity of the metal can be compensated by increasing the

thickness.
Base metals have higher rigidity than gold alloys that’s why they only
require 0.2 - 0.3mm thickness
4. No production of oxides causing discoloration of porcelain, for

example silver containing alloys, the silver diffuses in porcelain
forming clusters which has a greening effect on porcelain.
3
Basic requirements needed for dental veneering porcelain material:
1. Low fusing temperature, being about 170 to 280 more than the
melting range of the metal
2. Should be of high viscosity, i.e. they require a high resistance to
slumping in order to maintain their basic shapes during firing
3. Should resist devitrification, when porcelain is fired too many
times it may devitrify, thus becomes milky and difficult to glaze
4. Coefficient of thermal expansion should be slightly lower than
the metal by 1 x 10 -6 C to enhance the bond strength and avoid
crack formation
5. It must be chemically and optically stable over a series of firing
cycles.
Design of metal coping: (criteria of metal framework)
The design of the metal coping has an important effect on the success
or failure of the restoration, and since porcelain is a brittle material,
it’s stronger in compression than in tension so the coping must allow the
porcelain to remain in compression by supporting the incisal region, the
occlusal table and the marginal ridges.
It includes:
1. Thickness of the metal

2. Occlusal and proximal contacts
3. Extent of veneered area
4. Facial margin
4
5.
1) Thickness of the metal
 Maximum restoration strength and longevity is achieved by the

coping rigidity. The metal must not flex during seating of under
occlusal forces, because flexure place the porcelain in tension and
leads to its shearing. The metal must be as hard as possible, and
the coping design must insure an optimum bulk for rigidity.
 For adequate strength and rigidity, a noble metal coping should at

least 0.3 to 0.5 mm thick. A base metal alloy with higher yield
strength, high melting range and high modulus of elasticity may
be as thin as 0.2 – 0.3 mm.
 The veneering surface must be finished to a smooth texture with

rounded internal angles to allow proper wetting by the opaque
porcelain.
 Sharp angles or pits on the veneering surface of a metal-ceramic

restoration are to be avoided because they can ready contribute
to internal stress in the final porcelain. It is important to create
convex surface and rounded contours so that the porcelain will be
supported without development of stress concentrations. Also a
smooth surface will facilitate wetting on the framework by
porcelain slurry.
 The outer metal-ceramic junction should be as definite (90-

degree angle) and as smooth as possible to make finishing easier
during all a stages of fabrication. An acute angle of the metal at
metal-ceramic interface is more likely to produce porcelain
5
crazing. On the other hand, if the edge of the metal at the

porcelain-metal junction line is beveled or rounded, the porcelain
will end in a feathered edge, through which the oxidized metal or
opaque will show.
 Porcelain should be kept at a minimum thickness that is still

compatible with good esthetics. The absolute minimum thickness
of porcelain is 0.7 mm, and the desirable (optimum) thickness is
1.0 mm.
 Unsupported porcelain of high thickness (as that of incisal edge),

is very liable to fracture.
2) Occlusal and Proximal Contacts:
 Occlusal contacts should occur on the metal whenever possible

(to avoid wear of the opposing tooth and also due to being more
conservative), well away from the porcelain-metal junction line.
Contact near the junction can lead to metal flow and subsequent
porcelain fracture. The porcelain-metal junction should be placed
1.0 to 1.5mm from the centric occlusal contact (midway of lingual
slope of the buccal cusp).
 The occlusal contact of anterior teeth should be 1.5 – 2 mm away

from the contact with opposing teeth.
 Proximal contacts for anterior teeth should be on porcelain (for

esthetics since metal will lead to greying effect on the adjacent
6
tooth), which the dentist must facilitate during the tooth

preparation by adequate reduction of the inter-proximal areas.
NB.
In anterior teeth the porcelain must extend just lingual to the

contact area, the inter-proximal porcelain will provide greater depth
and translucency to the restoration. Inter-proximal metal tends to
darken the un-restored proximal surfaces of the adjacent teeth
(greying effect).
In posterior teeth, it should extend buccal to the contact area (non

esthetic area), and metal contact is allowed (biologically preferred)
In upper first premolar, mesially porcelain should extend lingual to

the contact area (for esthetics), while distally, it should be buccal
to the contact area (metal contact)
3) Extent of the Veneered Area
 To place occlusal contacts in metal, the porcelain on the facial

surface extends over the cusp tip and about half of the ways
down the lingual incline of the facial cusp on the maxillary
premolars and molars. There must be a rounded ledge of metal
under the facial cusp to support the porcelain. Without a
supporting ledge, the ceramic will fracture. This design is more
resistant to fracture than this in which the porcelain extends to
the central groove or covers the entire occlusal surface.
 Variants for maxillary teeth include porcelain coverage of the

mesial marginal ridge up to the middle of the triangular ridge, or
7
for those patients who demand absolute esthetics, complete

coverage with porcelain of occlusal surface of premolars and
molars, marginal ridge, proximal contact, fossa and the cusp
incline.
NB.
If the porcelain extends only to the cusp tip -> shear forces due to
load, leading to fracture of porcelain
If it extends to the central groove (site of contact with opposing

tooth) -> shear forces leading to fracture of porcelain
If the distance between the porcelain and the central groove is less
than 1.5 – 2 mm -> fracture of porcelain (due to flexure of metal)
So, porcelain should extend over the cusp tip and about half of the
ways down the lingual incline of the facial cusp (1.5 – 2 mm away from
central groove)
4) Facial margin
 The conventional facial margin for a metal-ceramic crown was a

narrow metal collar. To avoid an un-esthetic display of metal on
highly visible finish line often was placed sub-gingivally, which
may contribute to chronic gingival inflammation or more serious
periodontal problems.
NB. Following cementation, 60% of sub-gingival margins become

visible within a 2-year period.
 Frustration with the esthetics of the conventional metal collar

led to the use of collarless metal-ceramic crown, which can be
8
even with the gingival (equi-gingival) or even slightly supra-

gingival.
 Improved esthetics and periodontal health made collarless metal-

ceramic crown popular (collarless crowns have a facial margin of
porcelain and lingual and proximal margins of metal).
 Advantages of collarless crown:
1. The esthetic improvement it offers compared to the conventional

metal-ceramic restoration.
2. Plaque removal also is easier when the gingival tissues are in

contact with vacuum-fired glazed porcelain than when they are
contacting highly polished gold. Thus it would seem that porcelain
is the material of choice for restorations that will be in contact
with gingival tissue.
 Disadvantages of collarless crown:
1. the marginal adaptation of these restorations is slightly inferior

to that of the cast metal.
2. Fracture of the unsupported margin is sometimes a problem

during try-in or cementation due to careless handing. Fracture
during function is rarely a problem, as the labial margin is not
subjected to high tensile stresses.
3. In addition, the collarless metal-ceramic restoration is more time

consuming (technique sensitive) and therefore more costly to
make.
9
NB.
The type of porcelain used for collarless technique is called shoulder

porcelain, which have higher mechanical properties and lower
shrinkage than the conventional porcelain, but less esthetic.
 Another method is the thinner edge metal margin, in which

porcelain is adapted on a very thin metal layer, which provides
good adaptation and due to the thin metal no need for excessive
sub-gingival extension.
NB. Why do we keep the metallic collar lingually??
1. The lingual surface is not visible (so no effect on the esthetics)

2. More conservative
3. To allow the application of the crown remover when the
restoration needs to be removed
NB. The crown remover is a device used for removing the crown, it
depends on the fact that the cement is a brittle material, if it was
applied on the porcelain margin it will lead to its fracture, so the
presence of a metal collar lingually allows it to remove the restoration
without fracture
Methods of fabrication of porcelain labial margins:
1. Platinum foil technique:

- This technique utilizes a platinum matrix that is spot welded to
the metal substructure, to support the porcelain during firing
10
2. Direct lift (cyanoacrylate resin) technique:

- It’s widely used due to being less time consuming and easier to
perform than the platinum foil technique.
- The metal die is coated with a layer of cyanoacrylate resin and
the porcelain is condensed directly into it (because the die no
longer absorbs moisture from the wet ceramic buildup)
- The main difficulty in this technique occurs during staining and
glazing firing, because the porcelain is not supported as in the
platinum foil technique, so the margins tend to round off slightly,
therefore a special shoulder porcelains are needed (having higher
fusion temp. than that of enamel or dentin porcelains, which
allows repeated firing of the crown build up without any effect on
the margin)
3. Porcelain wax technique:

- A mixture of body porcelain and wax (6:1 by weight) is applied to
the die for final adaptation of the porcelain labial margin of the
PFM restoration
- If rounding of the margins is experienced during glazing, it may
be better to use shoulder porcelain
Metal preparation:
1. Investment removal:
- After the framework has been cast, all investment should be

removed ultrasonically, air-abrasion or with steam according to
manufacturer’s instructions.
11
- Careful examination of the internal aspect of the framework may

reveal small investment particles. Several cycles of ultrasonic
cleaning may be required to eliminate all residual investment. If air-
abrasion is used for investment removal, the margin of the
framework must be protected because metal as well as investment
can be removed.
-> gypsum bonded investment: used only with low fusing gold alloys (not
suitable for metal-ceramic restoration)
 Method of divesting: quenching of the ring after it gets out

from furnace leading to cracks in the investment material and
its fracture.
 Removal of excess investment by ultrasonic cleaner.
-> phosphate bonded investment (universal investment): which is

used with high fusing metal-ceramic alloys (noble or base metals),
they are difficult to remove and may lead to distortion of the
restoration.
 Method of divesting: milling

 For removal of excess investment hydrofluoric acid is used.
Hydrofluoric acid will dissolve the refractory silica material of
the investment. However, this material is extremely dangerous
and must be handled very cautiously. Contact with skin will
result in painful acid burns, and slight exposure to the fumes
may produce sever corneal damage.
12
2. Oxide removal:
The oxide layer that has been formed on the metal surface during
casting must be removed, again with either acid or air-abrasion
(sand blasting). If the metal-porcelain bond is to be maximized, the
alloy manufacturer’s directions should be followed as the bonding
depends on a controlled metal-oxide layer. (the thinner the oxide
layer the better the bonding).
3. Metal finishing:
- The metal surface should be smooth, convex, with no
irregularities and no sharp line angles.
- Finishing is done by:
 Carbide burs
 Ceramic bonded stones (non contaminated ceramic bonded
stones)
NB. The binder in stones used in reduction is an organic binder

which contaminate the surface of the metal, that’s why we use
non contaminated ceramic bonded stones
- Finishing is done in one direction, with minimal pressure to avoid

dragging of the metal over itself (folding of metal), which could
entrap air and grinding debris (showing as bubbles in or
contamination of the porcelain)
- Finishing is done before application of porcelain to:
 Avoid scratching of porcelain at the metal-porcelain
junction
 Heat generated during finishing can affect the bond
between the metal and porcelain.
13
- It is necessary to protect the margins of the casting from

abrasion.
4. Air-abrasion (Sand blasting):
- It’s done using with fine grit alumina, to:
 To make sure there is no excess oxides
 To give some sort of roughness (micro-mechanical
retention)
- It is necessary to protect the margins of the casting from
abrasion.
5. Checking the thickness:

- A dial caliper is invaluable for verifying that the metal
substructure conforms to all specified minimum dimensions. Metal
thickness less than 0.5 mm for gold alloys and 0.3mm for base
metal alloys, may lead to distortion during firing.
- If the metal is very thin -> flexure -> fracture of the porcelain
6. Cleaning:
- The substructure can be cleaned by immersion in a cleaning
solution in an ultrasonic unit. The duration of the cleaning cycle
will depend on the unit, but in most cases approximately 5 minutes
is adequate.
- Steam cleaning is an excellent and timesaving alterative to
ultrasonic cleaning. Residual soap can be removed by a rinse in
distilled water.
- The veneering surface should not touch once the cleaning
procedures have been completed.
14
7. Oxidizing (for noble metals):

- To establish a chemical bond between the metal and porcelain, a
controlled oxide layer must be created on the metal surface. In
most alloys tin, indium, and zinc are the base elements used for
oxide formation.
- The oxide layer is obtained by placing the metal substructure on
a firing tray, inserting it into the muffle of the porcelain furnace,
and rising the temperature to a specified level that exceed the
firing temperature of the porcelain by sufficient margin. This will
cause indium and tin to diffuse and become near the surface
forming the oxide layer.
 A vacuum is created in the firing chamber to eliminate any
adherent gases (hydrogen gas) that is incorporated into the
molten alloys during casting. This gas if left in the coping, can
weaken the bond between porcelain and metal, causing the
formation of bubbles in the porcelain. The hydrogen is released
during the oxidation cycle. The term degassing is often used
interchangeably with oxidizing.
- The first porcelain application can be performed as soon as the
casting has cooled to room temperature after removal from the
furnace.
NB. In base metal alloys the first porcelain application can be

performed immediately after cleaning.
15
What helps in the bonding between metal and ceramics?
1. Oxide layer: created by oxidizing (in noble metals)

2. Micro-mechanical retention: by sand blasting
3. Compressive stresses: due to slight dis-match of coefficient of
thermal expansion between the metal and porcelain (increases the
tensile strength of porcelain)
Since porcelain is a brittle material tension causes the formation of

pores -> cracks -> propagation -> fracture. The compressive stresses
seal the pores so increases the tensile strength.
16
Alternatives to casting techniques:
Alternatives to casting techniques
Why do we use the alternatives?
1. Common failure of casting

2. Decreased thickness
3. Better esthetics
4. Ease of fabrication and time saving
5. Alloys difficult in casting (example: titanium)
Why is titanium difficult in casting?
Its technique sensitivity is due to:
1. High chemical reactivity (react with the surrounding air, with the
investment material so should be casted under vacuum)
2. High melting temperature (1700 C melting range)
3. Low density (needs a strong centrifugal casting machine)
Why is titanium considered a better alternative to gold and base

metals?
1. Biocompatibility (it’s the most biocompatible alloy after gold)

NB. Nickel can cause allergy and beryllium is cytotoxic
2. Corrosion resistance
3. High strength
4. Low density (the restoration will have low weight which is more
preferred for the patient)
5. Low thermal conductivity
6. Low cost
1
1. Metal foil technology.
2. Electroforming.
3. Capillary technology.
4. Machining.
5. Rapid prototyping.
1. Metal foil technology:

It was used before the discovery of the high strength
ceramics
It depends on forming a bond between ceramics and platinum
(Bonded platinum foil coping)
Not used anymore
2. Elector-forming:
Similar to electroplating, but In electroforming, the metal can
be grown as thick as the customer wants (used with gold)
Example: Heliform 600
2
3. Captek (capillary casting technology):

It produces a coping in form of foil, but is done in a technique
that gives it more strength than other foils
Technique:
2 wax sheets are used
a. A wax strip loaded with powdered high palladium
platinum content metal: it’s adapted on a refractory
die and enters the furnace, causing the wax to
eliminate leaving a very thin coping of platinum and
palladium which is porous (due to evaporation of wax
leaving porosity inside the framework)
NB. These spaces will be filled by gold
b. The second wax sheet is a 97% gold loaded wax strip,
which is adapted on the coping (of palladium and
platinum) and enters the furnace, the gold (by capillary
action) will enter in-between the meshwork of
palladium and platinum.
It combines the properties of gold, platinum, and palladium:
Gold: color, biocompatibility and burnishability
Platinum and palladium: strength, toughness and temperature
stability
Used in Fixed Partial Dentures: bridges and long spam bridges
(widely used)
3
4. Machining:
a. MAD-MAM
b. CAD-CAM
MAD-MAM “manual aided design – manual aided manufacture”:
Same technique of CAD-CAM but instead of using computer,

we use the hand of the technician.
Steps of preparation: similar to keys manufacture
“handograph”:
1. The technician forms a pattern of composite.
2. Tooling the pattern in one compartment
3. Milling of the restoration to get the same dimensions of the
pattern.
It depends on the skills of the technician to make a good
pattern.
Errors may occur
Used for making metal or ceramic restoration
4
CAD-CAM “computer aided design – computer aided manufacture”:
Steps:
1. Data capture (by scanning)

2. Designing
3. Subtractive milling or additive manufacturing
Scanning:
Intra oral: by camera, at first accessibility
and saliva were the main disadvantage.
however, intra-oral scanners can give like
real-life image / videos of the condition.
It can gives images of restorations and
opposing teeth…
Extra oral: impressions or casts scanned extra-orally, for better
accuracy
Designing:
Different designs are found in the library of the software, so
that the technician can choose the most suitable design for the
case.
1. Settings (parameters):
Insertion axis.
Margin placement
Margin thickness.
Spacer and cement space
connector thickness
5
Veneering thickness
Pontic design
occlusal &wall thickness
2. software suggests the best
design form data fed in
3. operator can modify this design:
any modification is made by the
mouse (making a surface convex,
flat or removal of excess)
how to know what to modify?
->The software gives color codes for the areas to be modified
and the operator will modify them.
Subtractive manufacturing (milling):

Tools:
1. Blocks / blanks
2. Milling machine
3. Coarse cutting tool
4. Fine cutting tool
Choose proper block size
6
Additive manufacturing:
Process:
1. 3D scanner
2. CAD model
3. STL file format
4. Slicing STL file
5. Prototype grows in layers
Advantages:
Fast.
Dense &homogenous restorations.
No tooling and Less waste material.
Material formed:
1. Thermoplastic: resin or wax

2. Powder: metal
Techniques:
1. Laser beam (Stereolithography-Selective laser sintering): for

titanium
2. Nozzle (Ink jet printing - 3 DP - Fused deposition modeling):
for wax and resin
Uses in restoration fabrication:
1. Printed models and dies

2. Wax pattern fabrication
3. Metallic frameworks for crowns & bridges.

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Fifth Impact

Introduction (crown and bridge classification)

Introduction (crown and bridge classification)

1) Prosthesis: any artificial replacement of a missing or absent

Fixed prosthodontics includes:

Classification of fixed prosthodontics:

§ Post crown: artificial restoration of the entire coronal

Full coverage (veneer) crown:

àFull coverage crowns are classified acc. To material into:

2) Non-metallic "jacket crown"

àFull coverage crowns are classified acc. To retention into:

àPartial coverage crowns are classified acc to surfaces

3) Mac boyle retainer:

Bridge: "Fixed partial denture"

1) Simple: one single type of bridge

It's the bridge in which each connector is formed of two parts,

→ Fixed – free bridge (cantilever):

Adv.: conservation of natural tooth structure

Disadv.: poor force distribution "toe reaction"

→ Spring – cantilever bridge:

Disadv." Discomfort of patient and may fall

→ Adhesive bridge "merland bridge":

Adv.: conservation of natural tooth structure and esthetics

Disadv.: retention resistance is weak (may fall) so the best type

Indication: one tooth is missing only

1. Anterior bridge: extends from one canine on one side to the

Unilateral: two or three unit bridge, which doesn’t

Bilateral bridge: it's the bridge that crosses the

3. Complex bridge "antero: posterior": extends from the

Instruments and equipment for tooth preparation

Dental equipment: an installation or an implement for undertaking

Dental instrument: a tool or device used for a specific type of work or

- To develop an ordinary procedure of tooth preparation, specific

 so the choice of dental instruments is made according to:

they are instruments used in dentistry to cut , shape, plane and

- They are divided into:

A. Hand cutting instruments:

Initially, the removal and shaping of the tooth structure were

- Materials used for manufacture of hand cutting instruments:

- Classification of hand cutting instruments:

- Design of hand cutting instruments:

 blade (or nib):

B. Rotary (powered) cutting equipment:

They are formed of:

 The hand piece:

it’s a device for holding rotating instrument, transmitting the

- hand pieces are powered by:

((the speed range is calculated as revolution per minute ”rpm” ))

Recent advances in hand pieces:

1. Allow for repeated sterilization.

Rotary speed ranges:

1) Low (slow) speed: below 12.000 rpm

Disadvantages of low speed cutting:

Uses of low speed range:

Advantages of high speed cutting:

- Used for efficient tooth preparation and removing old restorations

Other techniques for tooth preparation is:

Air abrasive technique: depends on the rapid continuous air driven

cutting tools (rotary cutting instruments):

They are manufactured in hundreds of sizes, shapes and types.

This variation is a result of the need for specialized designs for

Each instrument consists of three parts:

It’s the part that fits into the hand piece.

It has three common classes: