Digital-Image-Processing 02 2017 18 PDF

PSD2B
Digital Image Processing
Unit I -V
TM
Syllabus- Unit 1
• Introduction
• Steps in Image Processing
• Image Acquisition
• Representation
• Sampling & Quantization
• Relationship between pixels
• Color Models
• Basics of Color Image Processing
PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 2

TM
What is a Digital Image ?

A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional
image as a finite set of digital values, called picture elements
or pixels
•Pixel values typically represent gray levels, colours, heights,

opacities etc
•Remember digitization implies that a digital image is an
approximation of a real scene
1 pixel

TM
What is Digital Image Processing?
•Digital image processing focuses on two major tasks
– Improvement of pictorial information for human interpretation
– Processing of image data for storage, transmission and

representation for autonomous machine perception

TM
Digital Image
Digital image = a multidimensional

array of numbers (such as intensity
image)
or vectors (such as color image)
Each component in the image 10 10 16 28

called pixel associates with  9 65
6
70 56 43
26 3756 78
 3299 96 67 
54 70
the pixel value (a single number in 
15 25  67
6013902296
the case of intensity images or a  21 54 47 42 
32 158587853943 92
vector in the case of color images). 54 65 65 39 
32 65 87 99
Fundamentals of DIP TM
Origin
y
Image “After snow storm” f(x,y)
An image: a multidimensional function of spatial coordinates.
 Spatial coordinate: (x,y) for 2D case such as photograph,
(x,y,z) for 3D case such as CT scan images
(x,y,t) for movies
 The function f may represent intensity (for monochrome images)
or color (for color images) or other associated values

Digital Image TM
Acquisition Process

Conventional Coordinate for TM
Image Representation

TM
Sampling and Quantization

Generating a Digital Image Sampling
Image sampling: discretize an image in the spatial domain

Spatial resolution / image resolution: pixel size or number of pixels

TM
Image Quantization
Image quantization:
discretize continuous pixel values into discrete numbers
Color resolution/ color depth/ levels:

- No. of colors or gray levels or
- No. of bits representing each pixel value
- No. of colors or gray levels Nc is given by
Nc  2 b
where b = no. of bits

TM
Relationship between Pixels

(0,0) x
(x-1,y-1) (x,y-1) (x+1,y-1)
(x-1,y) (x,y) (x+1,y)

y
(x-1,y+1) (x,y+1) (x+1,y+1)
Conventional indexing method

TM
Neighbors of a Pixel
Neighborhood relation is used to tell adjacent pixels. It is
useful for analyzing regions.
(x,y-1) 4-neighbors of p:
(x1,y)
(x-1,y) p (x+1,y)
(x+1,y)
(x,y1)
N4(p) = (x,y+1)
(x,y+1)
4-neighborhood relation considers only vertical and

horizontal neighbors.
Note: q N4(p) implies p N4(q)

8 Neighbors of a pixel TM
(x-1,y-1) (x,y-1) (x+1,y-1) 8-neighbors of p:
(x1,y1)
(x-1,y) p (x+1,y)
(x,y1)
(x+1,y1)
(x1,y)
(x-1,y+1) (x,y+1) (x+1,y+1) (x+1,y)
N8(p) = (x1,y+1)
(x,y+1)
(x+1,y+1)
8-neighborhood relation considers all neighbor pixels.

TM
Connectivity
Connectivity is adapted from neighborhood relation.

Two pixels are connected if they are in the same class (i.e. the
same color or the same range of intensity) and they are
neighbors of one another.
For p and q from the same class

 4-connectivity: p and q are 4-connected if q N4(p)
 8-connectivity: p and q are 8-connected if q N8(p)
 mixed-connectivity (m-connectivity):
p and q are m-connected if q N4(p) or
q ND(p) and N4(p) N4(q) = 

Color Models TM
• Color model, color space, color system

– Specify colors in a standard way
– A coordinate system that each color is represented by a single point
• RGB model
• CYM model
• CYMK model
• HSI model

RGB Color Model
TM
Pixel depth: the number of bits used to represent each pixel in RGB space
Full-color image: 24-bit RGB color image
(R, G, B) = (8 bits, 8 bits, 8 bits)

TM
Color Fundamentals
3 basic qualities are used to describe the quality of a chromatic light

source:
Radiance: the total amount of energy that flows from the light
source (measured in watts)
Luminance: the amount of energy an observer perceives from the

light source (measured in lumens)
Note we can have high radiance, but low luminance
Brightness: a subjective (practically unmeasurable) notion that

embodies the intensity of light

TM
Syllabus : Unit 2
• Image Enhancement in spatial domain
• Some Basic Gray level transformations
• Histogram Processing
• Basics of spatial filtering and smoothing

TM
Image Enhancement
Image Enhancement: is the process that improves the

quality of the image for a specific application
Some Examples of enhancement process are:
Contrast enhancement, Edge enhancement, noise filtering,
sharpening, magnifying etc.

Image Enhancement in the TM
Spatial Domain
Spatial Domain Methods (Image Plane) Techniques are based on
direct manipulation of pixels in an image
Spatial domain refers to the aggregate of pixels composing an image.
Spatial domain methods are procedures that operate directly on
these pixels. Spatial domain processes will be denoted by the
expression:
g(x,y) = T [f(x,y)]
Where f(x,y) in the input image, g(x,y) is the processed

image and T is as operator on f, defined over some neighborhood of
(x,y)
In addition, T can operate on a set of input images.

TM
Image Enhancement
(Spatial Domain)
The simplest form of T, is when the
neighborhood of size 1X1 (that is a single
pixel). In this case, g depends only on the
value of f at (x,y), and T becomes a gray-
level (also called intensity or mapping)
transformation function of the form:
s = T (r)
Where, for simplicity in notation, r

and s are variables denoting, respectively,
the gray level of f(x,y) and g(x,y) at any
point (x,y)

TM
Examples of Enhancement
Techniques- Contrast
Streching
Contrast Stretching
A simple image enhancement technique that
improves the contrast in an image by „stretching‟
the range of intensity values it contains to span
a desired range of values.

TM
Examples of Enhancement
Techniques- Thresholding
Thresholding
Is a limited case of contrast stretching, it
produces a two-level (binary) image.

TM
Basic Gray Level Transformations

TM
Histogram Processing
Histogram based Enhancement
Histogram of an image represents the relative frequency

of occurrence of various gray levels in the image
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200

TM
Why Histogram?
4
x 10
3.5
2.5
Histogram information
2 reveals that image is
1.5
1 under-exposed
0.5
0 50 100 150 200 250
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
Over-exposed
2000
image
1000
0 50 100 150 200 250

TM
Histogram Equalization
before after
3000 3000
2500 2500
2000 2000
1500 1500
1000
1000
500
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
before after
equalization equalization
TM
Spatial Filtering
The Spatial Filtering Process
a b c j k l
d e f m n o
g h i p q r
Original Image Filter (w)
Pixels
eprocessed = n*e +
j*a + k*b + l*c +
m*d + o*f +
p*g + q*h + r*i
The above is repeated for every pixel in the original image to generate the
filtered image
TM
Spatial Filtering :Equation Form
a b
g ( x, y )    w(s, t ) f ( x  s, y  t )
s   at   b
Filtering can be given in equation

form as shown above
Notations are based on the image
shown to the left

TM
Smoothing
Image smoothing is used for two primary purposes:
To give an image a softer or special effect
To eliminate noise
Smoothing Spatial Filters
1/ 1/ 1/
9 9 9
1/ 1/ 1/
9 9 9
1/ 1/ 1/ Simple averaging filter
9 9 9
1/ 2/ 1/
16 16 16 Weighted averaging
2/ 4/ 2/ filter
16 16 16
1/ 2/ 1/
16 16 16
TM
Effect of using Filters
Original Image Image After Image After

With Noise Averaging Filter Median Filter
Filtering is often used to remove noise from images
Sometimes a median filter works better than an averaging filter

TM
Smoothing filters: Gaussian

TM
Smoothing Median Filtering
• Very effective for removing “salt and pepper” noise (i.e., random
occurrences of black and white pixels).
median
averaging filtering

TM
Syllabus: Unit 3
• Image Enhancement in Frequency Domain
•Introduction to Fourier Transform
•1-D, 2-D DFT & Inverse transform
•Smoothing and Sharpening Filters

TM
Image Enhancement in the

Frequency Domain
• The frequency domain refers
to the plane of the two
dimensional discrete Fourier
transform of an image.
• The purpose of the Fourier

transform is to represent a
signal as a linear combination of
sinusoidal signals of various
frequencies.

TM
Fourier Transform
Any function that periodically repeats itself can be
expressed as the sum of sines and/or cosines of different
frequencies, each multiplied by a different coefficient
(Fourier series).
Even functions that are not periodic (but whose area

under the curve is finite) can be expressed as the integral
of sines and/or cosines multiplied by a weighting function
(Fourier transform).

TM
1D Fourier Transform
• The one-dimensional Fourier transform and its inverse

– Fourier transform (discrete case) DTC
M 1
1
F (u ) 
M
 f ( x )e
x 0
 j 2ux / M
for u  0,1,2,...,M  1
– Inverse Fourier transform:

M 1
f ( x)   F (u )e j 2ux / M for x  0,1,2,...,M  1
u 0

TM
2D Fourier Transform
• The two-dimensional Fourier transform and its inverse

– Fourier transform (discrete case) DTC
M 1 N 1
1
F (u , v) 
MN

x 0 y 0
f ( x, y )e  j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
for u  0,1,2,...,M  1, v  0,1,2,..., N  1

– Inverse Fourier transform:
M 1 N 1
f ( x, y )   F (u , v)e j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
u 0 v 0
for x  0,1,2,...,M  1, y  0,1,2,..., N  1

• u, v : the transform or frequency variables
• x, y : the spatial or image variables

TM
2D DFT and its inverse
The 2D DFT F(u,v) can be obtained by

1. taking the 1D DFT of every row of image f(x,y), F(u,y),
2. taking the 1D DFT of every column of F(u,y)
(a)f(x,y) (b)F(u,y) (c)F(u,v)

TM
Basics of filtering in the

frequency domain

TM
Some Basic Filters & their

Functions
Lowpass filter
Highpass filter

TM
Smoothing Frequency Domain Filters

The basic model for filtering in the frequency domain
where F(u,v): the Fourier transform of the image to be

smoothed
H(u,v): a filter transfer function
Smoothing is fundamentally a lowpass operation in the

frequency domain.
There are several standard forms of lowpass filters (LPF).

Ideal lowpass filter
Butterworth lowpass filter
Gaussian lowpass filter

TM
Ideal Low Pass Filters
• The simplest lowpass filter is a filter that “cuts off” all high-
frequency components of the Fourier transform that are at a
distance greater than a specified distance D0 from the origin of
the transform.
• The transfer function of an ideal lowpass filter
1 if D(u, v)  D0
H (u, v)  
0 if D(u, v)  D0
where D(u,v) : the distance from point (u,v) to the center of
ther frequency rectangle
 
1
D(u , v)  (u  M / 2)  (v  N / 2)
2 2 2

TM
Ideal Low Pass Filters

TM
Sharpening Frequency Domain Filter

H hp (u , v)  H lp (u , v)
Ideal highpass filter
0 if D(u, v)  D0
H (u, v)  
1 if D(u, v)  D0
Butterworth highpass filter

1
H (u , v) 
1  D0 / D(u, v)
2n
Gaussian highpass filter
 D2 (u ,v ) / 2 D02
H (u, v)  1  e

TM
Syllabus – Unit 4
• Image restoration
• Model of degradation and restoration
process
• noise models
• restoration in the presence of noise
• periodic noise reduction
•Image segmentation
•Thresholding
• Region based segmentation.

TM
Image Restoration
• Goal of image restoration
– Improve an image in some predefined sense

– Difference with image enhancement ?
• Features
– Image restoration v.s image enhancement

– Objective process v.s. subjective process
– A prior knowledge v.s heuristic process
– A prior knowledge of the degradation phenomenon is
considered
– Modeling the degradation and apply the inverse process to
recover the original image

TM
Model of Degradation & Restoration Process
g(x,y)=f(x,y)*h(x,y)+h(x,y)
G(u,v)=F(u,v)H(u,v)+N(u,v)
TM
Noise Models
• Source of noise
– Image acquisition (digitization)
– Image transmission
• Spatial properties of noise
– Statistical behavior of the gray-level values of pixels
– Noise parameters, correlation with the image
• Frequency properties of noise
– Fourier spectrum
– Ex. white noise (a constant Fourier spectrum)

TM
Noise probability
density functions
Noises are taken as random variables
Random variables
Probability density function (PDF)
Gaussian Noise
• Math. tractability in spatial and frequency domain
• Electronic circuit noise and sensor noise
1
p( z )  e  ( z   ) / 2
2 2
2 
mean
variance

Note:


p ( z )dz  1

Other Noise Models TM
• Impulse (salt-and-pepper) noise

Quick transients, such as faulty switching during imaging
• Periodic Noise -Arise from electrical or electromechanical interference
during image acquisition

Restoration in the Presence
TM
of Noise
Mean Filters
ˆf ( x, y )  1
Arithmetic Mean
 g ( s, t )
mn ( s ,t )S xy
Geometric Mean
1/ mn
ˆf ( x, y)    g (s, t )
( s ,t )S xy 
 

TM
Mean Filters
• Harmonic mean filter

mn
fˆ ( x, y ) 
1

( s ,t )S xy g ( s, t )
• Contra-harmonic mean filter
 g ( s ,
( s ,t )S xy
t ) Q 1
Q=-1, harmonic
fˆ ( x, y ) 
 g ( s, t ) Q Q=0, airth. mean
( s ,t )S xy Q=+, ?
TM
Pepper Salt
Noise Noise
Contra-
Contra- harmonic
harmonic Q=-1.5
Q=1.5
TM
Uniform noise Left +

Bipolar Noise
0
Pa = 0.1
2800
Pb = 0.1
5x5
5x5 Geometric
Arith. Mean mean
filter
5x5
5x5
Median Alpha-trim.
Filter
filter
d=5
TM
Periodic Noise Reduction
• Pure sine wave

– Appear as a pair of impulse (conjugate) in the
frequency domain
f ( x, y )  A sin( u0 x  v0 y )
A u0 v0 u0 v0 
F (u, v)   j  (u  , v  )   (u  , v  )
2 2 2 2 2 
TM
Periodic Noise Reduction

Bandreject filters, Bandpass filters, Notch filters, Optimum notch filters
Bandreject filters
* Reject an isotropic frequency
ideal Butterworth Gaussian

TM
noisy spectrum
filtered
bandreject
TM
Image Segmentation
Image segmentation is the operation of partitioning an

image into a collection of connected sets of pixels.
1. into regions, which usually cover the

image
2. into linear structures, such as

- line segments
- curve segments
3. into 2D shapes, such as

- circles
- ellipses
- ribbons (long, symmetric regions)

TM
Thresholding
In A: light objects in dark background
To extract the objects:
Select a T that separates the objects from the background

i.e. any (x,y) for which f(x,y)>T is an object point

TM
Region Based Segmentation

1. Region Growing
Region growing techniques start with one pixel of a
potential region and try to grow it by adding adjacent
pixels till the pixels being compared are too disimilar.
2. Clustering
•There are K clusters C1,…, CK with means m1,…, mK.

• The least-squares error is defined as
• Out of all possible partitions into K clusters,
choose the one that minimizes D.
3. Split and Merge

TM
Syllabus- Unit 5
• Image compression Fundamentals

• Models
• Information theory
• Error free compression
• Lossy compression
• Predictive and transform coding
• JPEG standard.

TM
Image Compression
• The goal of image compression is to reduce the amount of data
required to represent a digital image.
Data compression aims to reduce the amount of data while

preserving as much information as possible.

TM
Types of Image Compression

• Lossless
– Information preserving
– Low compression ratios
• Lossy
– Not information preserving
– High compression ratios
Trade-off: information loss vs compression ratio

TM
compression
Compression ratio:

TM
Compression Ratio
Example:

TM
Types of Redundancy
(1) Coding Redundancy

(2) Interpixel Redundancy
(3) Psychovisual Redundancy
• Data compression attempts to reduce one

or more of these redundancy types.

TM
Coding Definitions
• Code: a list of symbols (letters, numbers, bits

etc.)
• Code word: a sequence of symbols used to
represent some information (e.g., gray levels).
• Code word length: number of symbols in a code
word.

TM
Coding Redundancy
• Case 1: l(rk) = constant length
Example:

TM
Interpixel redundancy
• Interpixel redundancy implies that pixel values are
correlated (i.e., a pixel value can be reasonably predicted
by its neighbors).

f ( x) o g ( x)   f ( x) g ( x  a)da

auto-correlation: f(x)=g(x)
TM
Psycho visual redundancy

• The human eye is more sensitive to the lower
frequencies than to the higher frequencies in
the visual spectrum.
• Idea: discard data that is perceptually
insignificant!

TM
Image Compression Model

TM
Lossy Compression
• Transform the image into some other domain
to reduce interpixel redundancy.
~ (N/n)2 subimages

TM
JPEG Compression
Entropy
encoder
Accepted as
an
international
image
compression
standard in
1992.

TM
JPEG - Steps
1. Divide image into 8x8 subimages.
For each subimage do:
2. Shift the gray-levels in the range [-128, 127]
3. Apply DCT  64 coefficients
1 DC coefficient: F(0,0)
63 AC coefficients: F(u,v)

Digital-Image-Processing 02 2017 18 PDF

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Digital-Image-Processing 02 2017 18 PDF

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

PSD2B

Digital Image Processing

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 2

What is a Digital Image ?

•Pixel values typically represent gray levels, colours, heights,

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 3

What is Digital Image Processing?

•Digital image processing focuses on two major tasks

– Improvement of pictorial information for human interpretation

– Processing of image data for storage, transmission and

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 4

Digital image = a multidimensional

Each component in the image 10 10 16 28

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 6

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 7

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 8

Sampling and Quantization

Image sampling: discretize an image in the spatial domain

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 9

Color resolution/ color depth/ levels:

- No. of bits representing each pixel value

- No. of colors or gray levels Nc is given by

where b = no. of bits

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 10

Relationship between Pixels

(x-1,y-1) (x,y-1) (x+1,y-1)

(x-1,y) (x,y) (x+1,y)

(x-1,y+1) (x,y+1) (x+1,y+1)

Conventional indexing method

4-neighborhood relation considers only vertical and

Note: q N4(p) implies p N4(q)

(x-1,y-1) (x,y-1) (x+1,y-1) 8-neighbors of p:

8-neighborhood relation considers all neighbor pixels.

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 13

Connectivity is adapted from neighborhood relation.

For p and q from the same class

 8-connectivity: p and q are 8-connected if q N8(p)

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 14

• Color model, color space, color system

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 15

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 16

3 basic qualities are used to describe the quality of a chromatic light

Luminance: the amount of energy an observer perceives from the

Brightness: a subjective (practically unmeasurable) notion that

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 17

• Image Enhancement in spatial domain

• Some Basic Gray level transformations

• Basics of spatial filtering and smoothing

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 18

Image Enhancement: is the process that improves the

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 19

Where f(x,y) in the input image, g(x,y) is the processed

In addition, T can operate on a set of input images.

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 20

Where, for simplicity in notation, r

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 21

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 22

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 23

Basic Gray Level Transformations

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 24

Histogram of an image represents the relative frequency

PSD2B- Digital Image Processing 25

0 50 100 150 200 250