"ff

Inductanceand Capacitance
Measurements

Objectives
You *ill be able to:
l . SketchRC seriesand parallel equivalentcircuits for a capacitor, and write equations
rela:ingthe iwo circuits.
) Sketch Rl seriesand parallel equivalentcircuits for an inductor, and write equations
relatingthe two .;ircuits.
3. Explain the Q factor of an inductor and the D factor of a capacitor, and v.,ritethe equa-
tions for eachfactor.
4. Drau' circuit diagrams for the following ac bridges: simple capacitancebridge, series-
resistancecapacitancebridge, parallel-resistancocapacitancebridge, inductance com-
parisonbridge, Maxwell bridge, and Hay inductancebridge.
5. Erplain the operation of each of the bridges listed above, derive the equations for the
quantities to be measured,and discuss the advantagesand disadvantagesof each
brid-ee.
6. Sketch ac bridge circuit diagrams showing how a commercial rnultifunction imped-
ance bridge uses a standard capacitor and three adjustable standard resistors to mea-
surea wide rangeofcapacitancesand inductances.Explain.
7. Discussthe problemsinvolved in measuringsmall R, L, and C quantities,explain suit-
able measuring techniques,and calculate measuredquantities.
8. Sketch and explain the basic circuits for converting inductance and capacitance into
voltages for digital measurements.Discuss the specification and performance of a dig-
ital RIC meter.
9. Draw the circuit diagram for a Q meter, explain its operation and controls, and deter-
mine the Q of acoil from the Qmeter measurements.

189
Introduction
Inductancc, capacitai,ce,inductor Q factor, and capacitor D factor can all be mea-
sured precisely on ac bridges, which are adaptationsof the Wheatstonebridge. An ac
supply must be used, and the null detector musi be an ac instrument.A wide range
of ac bridge circuits are available for various specializedmeasurements.Some com-
mercial ac bridges use only a standardcapacitor and three adjustablestandard resis-
tors to construct several different types of inductanceand capacitancebridge circuits.
Special techniques must be employed for measuring very small inductance and ca-
pacitance quantities. For digital measurement,inductance,capacitance,and resistance
are first appiied to circuits that convert each quantity into a voltage. Capacitors and
inductors that are required to operate at high frequenciesare best measuredon a Q
meter.

3.1 RC AND RZ EQLIVALENT CIRCUITS

Capacitor Equivalent Circuits

T h e e q u i v a l e n tc i rc u i to facapaci torconsi stsofapurecapaci tance
C pandaparal l el resis-
tance Rp. as iliustrated in Figure 8-1(a). Cp representsthe actual capacitancevalue, and
ftp represents.the resistanceof the dielectricor leakageresistancc.Capacitorsthat have a
high leakagecurrent flowing through the dielectric have a relatively low value of Rp in
their equivalent circuit. Vc,y iow teakagecurrents are representedby extremely large val-
ues of Rp. Examples of the tv,'c extremes are electrolytic capacitors that have high leak-
age currents (low parallel resistance), and plastic film capacitors which have very low
leakage (high parallel resistance).An electrolytic capacitor might easily have several mi-
croamperesof leakage crlrrent, while a capacitor with a plastic film dielectric could typi-
cally have a resistanceas high as 100 000 MO.
A parallel RC circuit has an equivalent seriesRC circuit [Figure 8-1(b)]. Either one
of the tu'o equivalentcircuits (seriesor parallel) may be usedto representa capacitorin a
circuit. It is found that capacitorswith a high-resistance dielectric are best representedby
the seriesRC circuit, while those with a low-resistancedielectric should be represented
by the parallel equivalentcircuit. However, when the capacitoris measuredin terms of
the series C and R quantities, it is usually desirableto resolve them into the parallel

(u) Parallel equivalent
circuit
^,
1
'T
"l Figure 8-1 A capacitor may be represent-
ed by either a parallel equivalent circuit or a
seriesequivalent circuit. The parallel equiv-
alent circuit best represents capacitors that
have a low-resistancedielectric, while the
(b) Series equivalent seriesequivalent circuit is most suitable for
circuit capacitors with a high-resistancedielectric.

190 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

*iln

equivalent circuit quantities. This is because

the (parallei) leakage resistancebest repre-
sents the quality of the capacitor dielectric.
Equations ihat rela; the series and parallel
equivalent circuits are derived belorv.
Refening to Figure g_l, the seriesimpedanceis

Zr= Rr- jX,

and the parallel admittance is

y-=a*; I
'n-
4 * t 4 = G e + iB e
where G is conductance and is susceptance.
^B The impedances of each circuit must be
equal.

Thus,

giving

or

glvmg

Equating the real terms,

(8-1)

Equating the imaginary terms,

a,=
+ X !^
' R!^4

(8-2)

The equations aborre.can be shown to apply

also to equivarent series and parallel
RZ circuits, as well as RCcircuits

Sec. 8-l RC and RZ Equivalent Circuits

tgt.
-

.-ffi

Inductor Equivalent Circuits

Inductor equivalentcircuits are illustrated in Figr"e 8-2. The :eries equivalentcircuit in

Figure 8-2(a) representsan inductor as 2 pur. inductanceL" in serieswith the resistance
oi its coil. Th;s seriesequivalentcircuit is normally the best way to representan inductor,
becausethe actualwinding resistanceis involved and this is an importantqua:rtity.Ideal-
ly, the winding resistanceshould be as small as possible,but this dependson the thick-
nessand length of the wire used to wind the coil. Physically small high-valueinductors
tend to have large resistancevalues,while large low-inductancecomponentsare likely to
have low resistances.
The parallel RL equivalentcircuit for an inductor [Figure 8-2(b)] can also be used.
As in the caseof the capacitorequivalentcircuits, it is sometimesmore convenientto use
a parallelRL equivalentcircuit rather than a seriescircuit. The equationsrelating the two
are derivedbelorv.
Referringto Figure 8-2, the seriescircuit irnpedanceis
Z,= R,+ jX.,
and the parallelcircuit admittanceis

., I I
f = - - t-
-P
RP " X,,

Yr= Go-iB,
Zr: Zp

R"+JX _1
GP - jBp

t (Go+iBr\
R.+x. =
Gp-iBp\Gr+ jBo )
Gp+ jBp
glvlng R, +iX, =
Grr+q

9
I
A
1I il-1-t',
I
Figure 8-2 An inductor may be represent-
ed by either a parallel equivalent circuit or a
seriesequivalentcircuit. The seriesequiva-
lent circuit is normally used, but it is some-
(a) Series equivalent (b) Parallel equivalent times convenient to employ the parallel
circuit circuit eouivalent circuit.

192 Inductance and CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

 *--
til

Equrting the real terms,

Gp
ft,=
G,l+ r]
1/RP I R;X; \
rtR] + r/x] \ R:X: I

RoxS (8-3)
xj +n]

Equatingthe imaginaryterms,
Bp
Y=
c| + n'z,
llxp R;X; \
It"-"1
1/n] + ux] \ R;X; )

(8-4)

Like Equations8-1 and 8-2, Equations8-3 and 8-4 applv to both RC and RL circuits'

Q Factor of an Inductor
The quality of an inductor can be defined in terms of its power dissipation. An ideal in-
ductor should have zero winding resistance,and therefore zero power dissipated in the
u,inding. A /oss,]'inductor has a relatively high winding resistance;consequentlyit does
dissipate some power. The quatity factor, ot Qfactor; of the inductor is the ratio of the in-
ductir-ereactanceand resistanceat the operatingfrequency.

e=\='1" (8-5)
R, R"

where l, and R" refer to the componentsof an Rl seriesequivalent circuit [Figure 8-2(a)].
Ideally. ol. should be very much larger than R", so that a very large Q factor is obtained-
as 1000 (depend-
e faciors for typical inductors range from a low ofless than 5 to as high
ing on frequency).
As discussedearlier, an inductor may be representedby either a series equivalent
circuit or a parallel equivalent circuit. When the parallel equivalent circuit is employed,
the Q factor can be shown to be

Sec. 8-l RC and RL Equivalent Circuits 193

FE-*-

.-ff|

R' (8-0.1
Q=&-
Xp
^Ln

D Factor of a Capacitor

The quality of a capacitorcan be e;pressedin terms of its power dissipation.A very pure
capacitancehas a high dielectricresistance(low leakagecurrent) and virtually zero power
dissipation.A /ossy capacitor,which has a relatively low resistance(high leakagecur-
rent), dissipatessome power. The dissipationfactor D defines the quality of the capacitor.
Like the Q factor of a coil, D is simply the ratio of the component reactance(at a given
frequency)to the resistancemeasurableat its terminals. In the caseof the capacitor,the
resistanceinvolved in the D-factor calculationis that showu in the parallel equivalentcir-
cuit. (This differs'from the inductor Q-factorcalculation,where the resistanceis that in
the seriesequivalentcircuit.) Using the pa rallel equivalentcircuit:

o=b (8-7)
Rp aCrR,,

Idealll', R, shouldbe very much larger than l/(.iiCo), giving a very small dissipation
factor. T1'picalll', D might range from 0.1 for electrolytic capacitors to less than 10< for
capacitorsu,ith a plastic film dielectric(againdependingon frequency).
\\rlren a seriesequivalentcircuit is used,the equation for dissipatiorrfactor can be
shown to be

R " = coC J,
D= (8-8)
x"
ComparingEquation 8-7 to 8-6.andEquation 8-8 to 8-5, it is seenthat in each case
D is the inverse of Q.

Example8-1

An unknos'n circuit behavesas a 0.005 pF capacitor in series with a 8 kf,) resistor when
measuredat a frequency of I kHz. The terminal resistanceis measured by an ohmmeter
as 134 kQ. Determine the actual circuit componentsand the method of connection.

Solution
x"= I
2nfC 2r.xll<*.I2x0.005 pF

: 3l .8 kC)

R"= 8 kO

194 Inductance and CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

 o R.r+X.r _ (8 k0)2 + (31.8kO)'?
Equation 8-I ' .P--& -
8 kc)
= 134kO

Equatiott8-2, r = R : * ^, = (8kq)2+ (3r.8k0)2

31.8ko
^.
= 33.8kO

1 I
c,,=
' 2rJX, 2rxl kH zx33.8kf)
_ 0.005 u.F

Since the measuredterminal resistanceis 134 kO, the circuit must consist of a
0.005 pF capacitorconnectedin parallel with a 134 kf) resistor.For a series-
connectedcircuit, the terminal resistancewould be rnuchhigher than 134 k0.

8-2 AC BzuDGE THEORY

Circuit and Balance Equations

The basic circuit of an ac bridge is illustrated in Figure 8-3. This is exactly the same as
the Wtreatstonebridge circuit (Figure 7-3) except that impedancesare shown instead of
resistances.and an ac supply is used.The null detectormust be an ac instrumentsuch as
an electronic galvanometer,headphones,or an oscilloscope.
\\hen the null detector indicates zero in the circuit of Figure 8-3, the alternating
volta-seacross points a and b is zero. This means (as in the Wheatstone brirfge) that the
voltage acrossZ, is exactly equal to that across 22, and the voltage across 23 equals the
r,oltagedrop acrossZa. Not only are the voltages equal in amplitude, they are also equal

ac supply

Figure 8-3 The basic ac bridge circuit is similar to the Wheatstone bridge except that
impedances are involved instead ofresistances. An ac supply must be employed, and the
null detector must be an ac instrument.

Sec. 8-2 AC Bridge Theory 195

nI*-

.-m

in phase.If the voltageswere equal in amplitude but not in phase,the ac null detector
would not indicatezero.

Vzr = Vzz

i1Z.= i2Z2 ( l)

-* and V z t =V z q

or iyZu= 1r7o (2)

Dividing Equation I by Equation2,

irZr - iz4
itZt izZ+

giving (8-e)

As alreadystated,bridge balanceis obtainedonly when the voltagesat each termi-

nal of the rrull detectorare equal in phaseas well as in magnitude.This results in Equa-
tion 8-9. u,hich involves complex quantities.In such an equation,the real parts of the
quantitieson eachside must be equal, and the imaginaryparts of the quantitiesmust also
be equal.Therefore,when deriving the balanceequationsfor a particularbridge, it is best
to expressthe impedancesin rectangular form rather than polar form. The real quantities
can then be equatedto obtain one balanceequation,and the imaginary (or7 quantities)
can be equatedto arrive at the other balanceequation.
The need for two balance equations arises from the fact that capacitancesand in-
ductancesare never.pure;they must be definedas a combinationof R and C or R and I
(as discussedin Section8-1). One balanceequationpermitscalculationof L or C, and the
other is used for determining the R quantity.

Balance Procedure
As alreadyexplained,two componentadjustmentsare requiredto balancethe bridge (or
obtain a minimum indication on the null detector).Theseadjustmentsare ,?o/independent
of each other: one tends to affect the relative amplitudes of the voltages at each terminal
^f the null detector,and the other adjustmenthas a marked effect on the relative phase
differenceof thesevoltages.For example,Za inFigure 8-3 might consistof a variable ca-
pacitor in serieswith a variable resistor,as illustratedin Figure 8-4(a). Adjustment of Ca
ma1'make V7aequal in amplitude to V4 without bringing it into phase with V7j. The re-
sult is, of course, that the null detector voltage Vzt - Vz+is not zero [see Figure 8-4(b)].
Further adjustment of Co could alter the phase of VTabut will also alter its amplitude. If
Ra is now adjusted, Vn - Vzomight be further reducedby bringing the voltages closer to-
gether in phase. However, this cannot be achieved without altering the amplitude of V2a,
which is the voltage drop acrossRa and Ca [Figure 8-4(c)]. When the best null has been
obtained by adjustment of Ra, Ca is once again adjusted.This is likely to once more make

L96 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

qI

/rt _ r/ \
\v z3 v z4l

(a) Null detector voltage = (Vzz = Vzz)

Yz+ vzt vzA

r: - t/ t/
r z3 -rl vz4 vzs - vzt

(b) I'zs and V.4 (rl Vzg and V74 (d) Vzs and, Vyn
equal but not in-phase but equal and
in-phase not equal in in-phase
amplitude

Figure 8-4 When an ac bridge is balanced, yzr must equal V^, and the two voltages
must he in phase.This requires altemately adjusting two quantities (Ra and Ca in this cir-
c))it) unt'l the smallestpossiblenull detectorindication is achieved.

l/7. close toV..,in amplitude,but again has an unavoidableeffect on the phaserelation-

ship. The procedureof alternately adjusting Ra and C4 to minimize the null detector volt-
age is continueduntil the smallestpossibleindication is obtained.Then, Vyais equal to
VTborh in magnitudeand phase[Figure 8-4(d)r.

AC Bridge Sensitivity

The same considerationsthat determined the sensitivity of a Wheatstone bridge apply t<i
ac bridge circuits. The.bridge sensitivity may be defined in terms of the smallest change

Sec. 8-2 AC Bridge Theory t97

 iR

in the measuredquantity that causesthe galvanometerto deflect from zero. Bridge sensi-
tivity can be improved by using a more sensitive null detecior and/or by increasir-rgthe
level of supply voltage. The bridge sensitivity is analyzed by exactly the same method
used for the Wheatstone bridge, except that impedances are involved instead of resis-
tances. Accuracy of measurementsis also determined in the sa;tle way as Wheatstone
bridge accuracy.

8-3 CAPACITANCE BRIDGES

i-
Simple Capacitance Bridge it

The circuit of a simple capacitance bridge is illustrated in Figure 8-5(a). 21 is a standard

capacitorC1, and Q is the unknown capacitanceC,. 23 andZa arc known variable resis-
tors. such as decaderesistanceboxes. When the bridge is balanced,21/23 = 7alZa (Equa-
tion 8-9) applies:
-il
z,- = :11 z":
-
toCr aC*

Zz: R z and Z+ = R a

(a) Simple capacitancebridge

Figure 8-5 The simple capacitancebridge

measuresthe unknown capacitanceC, in
terms of standardcapacitor C1 and adjust-
able precision resistorsR3 and Ra. At bal-
ance,c,= cl3lR4. This circuit functions
(b) Potential divider only with capacitors that have very high re-
substituted for R, and Ra sistancedielectrics.

198 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap- 8

fr

-jllaCt _ iJ!'cu
Therefore,
n3 R4

l= I
or
C rR z C'Rq

glvrng (8-r0)

The actual resistancesof R3 and Ra zue not important if their ratio is knowno so a
potential-dividerresistancebox could be usedas shown in Figure 8-5(b).

Example 8-2

The standardcapacitancevalue in Figure 8-5 is Cy = 0.1 pF, and R3lRacan be set to any
ratio bet\\'een100:1 and 1:100.Calculatethe rangeof measurements of unknown capaci-
tance Q'.

Solution

CBt
Fnr r ation R- l O r^ =-
R4

For R3/Ra= 100: I :

100
C. = 0.1 F.Fx
I
= l0 p.F

For R3/ Ra =l : 1 0 0 :

pFr
C,=0.1
#
= 0.001p.F

The foregoing analysis of the simple capacitancebridge assumesthat the capacitors

are absolutely pure, with effectively zero leakage current through the dielectric. If a resis-
tance q,ere connected in series or in parallel with C. in Figure 8-5(a), and the rest ofthe
bridge components remain as shown, balance would be virtually impossible to achieve.
This is becausei1 and i2 could not be brought into phase, and consequently,i1R3 and i2R4
would not be in phase.As discussedin Section 8- 1, the equivalent circuit of a leaky capaci-
tor is a pure capacitancein parallel with a pure resistance.Thus, the simple capacitance
bridge is suitable only for measurernentof capacitors with high-resistancedielectrics.

Sec. 8-3 CapacitanceBridges r99

Series-ResistanceCapacitance Bridge
In the circuit shown in iigu;'e 3-6(a),the unkr:..'w:r
caDacirrnceis r';prcsented as a pure
capacitanceC5 in seri"s with a resirrance1.,. A standardadjustableresistanceR1 is con-
nectedin serieswith standardcapacitorC1.The voltagedrop acrossR, balancesthe resis-
rrvc voltage ilrops in branch22when the bridge is balanced.The additionalresistorin se-
ries u,ith C increasesthe total resistive componentin 2., so that inconveniently small
values of l(1 are not required to achievebalance.Bridge balanceis most easily achieved
when each capacitivebranch has a substantialresistivecomponent.To obtain balance,R1
and either Rj or Ra are adjustedalternately.The .series-resistartce
c'apacitancebridge is
found to be most suitablefor capacitorswith a high-resistancedielectric (very low leak-
age currenl and low dissipation factor). When the bridge is balanced,Equation 8-9 ap-
olies.

Zt -Zt
z3 z1

R r-j l /aC r _ R ,-j l l aC ,

giving (8 - r l )
R3 R.

Equatingthe real termsin Equation8-11,

R ,= R ,
R3 R"

glvln-s (8-r 2)

Equatingthe ima-einary
termsin Equation8- 11,

1_1
roClR-1 oC,R+

giving (8- 13)

The phasordiagram for the series-resistancecapacitancebridge at balanceis drawn

in Figure 8-6(bl. The voltage drops across23 andZ" are i1R3and i2Ro,respectively.These
two volta_ees must be equal and in phasefor the bridge to be balanced.Thus, they are
drawn equal and in phase in the phasor diagram. Since R3 and Ra are resistive,i1 is in
phasewith ilRj and f2 is in phase with i2Ra.The impedanceof C1 is purely capacitive,
and current leads voltage by 90" in a pure capacitance.Therefore, the capacitor voltage

200 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

- r*f

(a) Circuit of series-resistancecapacitance bridge

irRs = i2Rn

.(b) Phasor diagram for balanced bridge

Figure 8-6 The series-resistance capacitancebridge is similar to the simple capacitance

bridge. except that an adjustable series resistance (R1) is included to balance the resistive
component (R,) of 2". This bridge is most suitable for measuring capacitors with a high-
resis!ancedielectric.

drop i1X6r is drawn 90" lagging ir. Similarly, the voltage drop across c" is i2X6.5,and is
dran'n 90" lagging i2.The resistivevoltage drops l,R1 and i2Rsare in phasewith ir andi2,
respectively.
The total voltage drop across 21 is the phasor sum of i1R1 and i1X6.1,as illus-
hated in Figure 8-6(b). Also, i2Z2 is the phasor sum of l2R" and i2Xs,. since i2z2
must be equal to and in phase with iiT, ifrt and i2R" are equal, as are i1X6 and.
izXcr.

Sec. 8-3 CapacitanceBridges 201

 Example8-3

A series-resistancecapacitancebndge [as in Figure 8-6(a)] has a 0.4 p,F standardcapaci-

tor for C1, and R: = 10 k(r. Baiance is achieved with a l0OHz supply frequency when
Rr = 125 O and Ra = 14.7 kf,). Calculate the resistive and capacitive components of the
" .g measuredcapacitur and its dissipation factor.
.i*er***
'.aaaF
=.aF*
Solution
--##
0.1pF x 10kO
-.#ipr..l|
,- aaa.#itaae EquationS-13, C,=
. --ffi + t4.7 k{l
-#
-....g = 0.068p.F
- *'#
..-w

o - R,Ro 125Ax M.7 kA

Equarion 8-12, -R3 l 0 ko
= 183.8f)

Equation 8-8, D = oC,R,

= 2n x 100Hz x 0.068pF x 183.8C)
:0.008

Parallel-Resistance Capacitance Bridge

The circuit of a parallel-resistance capacitance bridge is illustrated in Figure 8-7. In this

case,the unknown capacitanceis representedby its parallel equivalentcircuit; Crinpar-
allel u'ith Ro.Z3 andZa are resistors,as before, either or both.of which may be adjustable.
Q is balancedby a standardcapacitor C1 in parallel with an adjustableresistor R1. Bridge
balanceis achievedby adjustmentor R1 and either R3 or Ra. The parallel-resistance ca-
pacitancebridge is found to be most suitable for capacitors with a low resistancedielec-
tric (relativell'high leakagecurrentand high dissipationfactor). At balance,Equation 8-9
onceagainapplies:

Z, -Zt
Z. Z^

Also, 1l _1
-=-
Zt Rr j(I/aC)
I

=- I + jaCl
Rr
1
Ll = -
l l R t+ j aC t

202 InductanceandCapacitance
Measurements Chap.8
wsil'

" dn*eho- 'rjffi

Figure 8-7 The parallel-resistancecapacitancebridge uses an adjustable resistance(Rr)

connected in parallel with C1 to balancethe resistive component (R) of Zz. This bridge is
most suitable for measuring capacitors with a low-resistancedielectric.

1=l* I
and
4 Re jQlaCr)

= -
T^
*JaLp
Rp

or 4=l
l/Ro+ jaC,
.:
substltuttng
into Equation8-9,
I/(l/&+ jloCr) _ ll(llR,+ jaCo)
R3 Rn

1 1
R3(l/Rr +j<oCy) R4(I/R.+ jaCo)

+i<,,cr)=n+ (8-14)
"(i t.t*')
Equating the real terms in Equation 8-14,

R :-R o
Rr Re

Sec. 8-3 CapacitanceBridges 203

 giving (8-15)

Equating the imaginary terms in Equation 8-14,

<oC1R3= aCrRa

glvlng (8-16)

Note the similarity betweenEquations8-15 and 8-12, and betweenEquations 8-16 and
8 -1 3 .

Example 8-4

A parallel-resistancecapacitancebridge (as in Figure 8-7) has a standardcapacitance

value of Cr = 0. I pF and R: = l0 kO. Balanceis achievedat a supply frequency of 100
Hz when Rr = 3'75kO, R3= l0 kO, and Ra = 14.7kQ. Calculdtethe resistiveand capaci-
tive componentsof the measuredcapacitor and its dissipation factor.

Solution
Equarions-16,
C,=+=t##4
= 0.068pF

^ R'& 375kC)x 14.7kQ

Equarion 8-15, K^= -
'R ^ r0ko
= 551.3kO

|
Equation 8-7, o=
@C,R, 2r x I 00 Hz x 0.068pF x 551.3 kO
= 42.5x l0-3

815
-**t"
Calculate the parallel equivalent circuit for the C, and R" values determined in Example
8-3. Also determine the component values of R1 and Ra required to balance the calculated
Co and Ro values in a parallel-resistancecapacitance bridge. Assume that R3 remains
l0 ko.

204 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

 *ffi
ryEf.-'Et rymt

' 'ry
..,*'"-*i'llf'P

Solution
1
x"=
2nfC" 2n x 100Hz x 0.068pF
=23.4kQ
nl+ x? = (r83.8fi)'?+ e3.4kQ12
Equation 8-1, ^
"n= & l83so
= 2.98MO
R?!x? (183.80)2 + (23.4kQ)2
EquationS-2, x,= -
,4.r 23.4kQ
= 23.4k{l

| I
C o=
' 2rJX, 2rrx 100H zx23.4kdl

:0.068 p.F

Front Equation 8-16,

o _ -CtRt _ 0.1 pFx l0kf)

rr4-
Ce 0.068 p.F
= 14.7kQ

From Equation 8-15,

, - RtR, 10k.0 x 2.98MO

R4 4.7 kA
= 2.03MO

The capacitor, which was determined in Example 8-3 as having a series equivalent
circuit of 0.068 pF and 183.8O, was shown in Example 8-5 to have a parallel equivalent
circuit of 0.068 pF and298 MO. It was also shown that to measurethe capacitor on a
parallel-resistance capacitancebridge,R1 (in Figure 8-7) would have to be 2.03 MO. This
is an inconvenientlylarge value for a precision adjustableresistor.So a capacitorwith a
high leaka-eeresistance(low D factor) is best measuredin terms of its series RC equiva-
lent circuit.
The capacitor in Example 8-4 has a parallel RC equivalent circuit of 0.068 pF
and 551.3 kO. Conversion to the series equivalent circuit would demonstrate that this
capacitor is not conveniently measured as a series RC circuit. Thus, a capacitor with a
low leakage resistance (high D factor) is best measured as a parallel RC equivalent
circuit.
Capacitors with a very high leakageresistanceshould be neasured as seriesRC cir-
cuits. Capacitors with a low leakage resistance should be measured as parallel RC cir-

Sec. 8-3 CapacitanceBridges 205

:riTiffi.
:_*f*l*iiir

I di-{*.ftiffidifrdt|L. ,ff

cuits. Capacitorsthat have neither a very high nor a

very low leakage resistance are best
rr,casurecas a parallerRC circuit, becausethis gives
u ii...t indicatioit of the capacitor
leakageresistance.

8.4 INDUCTANCE BRIDGES

Inductance Comparison Bridge

The circuit of the inductance comparison bridge

shown in Figure g_g is similar to the
series-resistancecapacitancebridge except
*!@r...t
.*klM
that inductors are in*volvedinstead of capaci-
tors' The unknown inductance'represented
by its (seriesequivalentcircuit) inductance
and R'' is measuredin terms of a precisestaniard z,
value inductor.zr is the standardinduc-
tor' R' is a variable standardresistor to balance
R,, R3 and Ra are standard resistors. Bal-
anceof the bridge is achievedby alternatery
adjustingR1 and either R3 or Ra. At barance,
Equation8-9 once againapplies:

tt
=t t
Z, 24

R, + jaLl R,+ iaL"

R3 R4

Rt .aL,
* = _& a;.L,
Rj -R r ( 8- 17)
R 4' R o

Equatingthe real componentsin Equationg_17.

R r= R"
R3 R^

Figure 8-8 The inductance comparison

bridge uses a standard inductor Z, together
with adjustable precision resistors R1, R3
and Ro to measure an unknown inductor
in terms of its series equivalent circuit
Z-
and R-.

2M
lnductance and CapacitanceMeasurements
Chap. g
 ij*..fl

glvlng (8-13)

Equatingth" imaginarycomponentsin Equation8-17,

aLr _ aL"
R3 R4

gvlrrg (8-1e)

t"
"r-*"
An inductor that is marked as 500 mH is to be measuredon an inductancecomparison
brid-ee.The bridge usesa 100 mH standardinductor for L1, and a 5 kO standard resistor
for R.. If the coil resistanceof the 500 mH inductor is measuredas 270 f,). determine the
resistancesof R1 and R3(in Figure 8-8) at which balanceis likely to occur.

Solution
From Equation 8-19, ro\3 -- R- o L r -- 5kOx100mH
L, 500 mH
= 1kC )

Frotn Equation 8-18, ^ R"R" 270.f,x I kO

R4 5ko
= 54f)

Nlaxnell Bridge

Accurate pure standard capacitors are more easily constructed than standard inductors.
Consequently,it is desirableto be able to measureinductancein a bridge that usesa ca-
pacitance standardrather than an inductance standard."[he Manuell bridge (also known
as the Maneell-Wein bridge) is shown in Figure 8-9. In this circuit, the standardcapacitor
C3 is connectedin parallel with adjustable resistor R3. R1 is again an adjustable standard
resistor. and Ra may also be made adjustable. l,, and R, represent the inductor to be
measured.
The Maxwell bridge is found to be most suitable for measuring coils with a low Q
factor (i.e., where <oZ"is not much larger than &). To determine the expression for 7a
and 2,.

Sec.8-4 InductanceBridses 207

 Figure 8-9 The N{axrvell bridge uses a standardcapacitor C3 and three adjustable precl-
sion resistors to measure an unknown inductor in terms of its series equivalent circuit, Z,
and R,. This bridge is most suitablefor measuringcoils with a low Q factor.

1=1_ 1 =l + jaC3
23 R3 jllaQ R3

I
7.- '
llfu+ jaC3
and Zz= R,+ joL"
Substitutingfor all componentsin Equation8-9,

Rr R" +"1'rol,
tt(r/&+ jaQ) R4

& * rrC. R, = & * j^ L , (8-20)

R3 R4 R4

Equating the real componentsin Equation 8-20,

: : : : "-. Rr R"
-
DD
r\? t\a

or [-4&l* ' l (8-21)

|
Equating the imaginary componentsin Equation 8-20,

208 Inductance and Capacitance Measurements Chap. 8

qffi

..i-*ii#f*k-'*;sa$*r.rr.flfliiia.-I.i.iiiii!ktrii*ri*ri*'r'**idfl**ir*r*liaii-|.**r lifu '{l}rl

tL'
uC 3R ,=
R4

glvrng (8-22)

Example 8-7

A Maxq,ell inductancebridge usesa standardcapacitorof Cj = 0. I p,Fand operatesat a sup-

p l y fre q u e n c y o fl 0 0H z.B al ancei sachi evedw henR=l1.26kA ,R 2= 410,f),andR o =JQ 6
f|. Calculate the inductance and resistanceof the measuredinductor, and determine its Q
factor.

Solutiott
Equatiort8-22, L, = CzRtR+
= 0.1pF x 1.26kO x 500O

= 63mH

Equariott8'21, R,=
- +&
= -Eqlaf4q-q
R. 470Q
= 1.34kCl

tL' 2t x 1ooHz T 63 mH
Equation8-5, Q= -
R, 1.34kc).
0.03

Ha1-Inductance Bridge
The fla-r'bridge circuit in Figure 8-10 is similar to the Maxwell bridge,except that R3 and
C-r?r€ cont€cted in seriesinsteadof parallel,and the unknown inductanceis represented
as a parallel l,R circuit instead of a series circuit. The balance equations are found to be
exactl]' the same as those for the Maxwell bridge. It must be remembered,however, that
the measuredL, and R, are a parallel equivalent circuit. The equivalent series RI, circuit
can be determinedby substitutioninto Equations8-3 and 8-4.
\Vtrenthe bridge in Figure 8-10 is balanced,

Z, =4
Z^ Z^

Ra .Ro Ra I
glvlng
- -t-
(8-23) .
Rp aLp Rr olC:Rr

Sec. 8-4 InductanceBridses 209

 !6itl"trtffii:L

;*il

Figure 8-10 The Hay bridge uses a standardcapacitor C3 and three adjustable precision
resistors to measure an unknown inductor in terms of its parallel equivalent circuit, Lo
and Rr. This circuit is most suitable for inductors with a high Q factor.

Equatingthe real componentsin Equation8-23,

&= &
RP Ri

(8-24)

Equatin-ethe imaginary componentsin Equation8-23,

R ^l
aLp - oC3R1

giving (8-2s)

*
"n-t.
A Hay bridge operating at a supply frequency of 100 Hz is balanced when the compo-
nents are Cr = 0.1 FF, Rr = I.26 kO, R3 = 75 O, and R4 = 500 f,). Calculate the in-
ductance and resistance of the measured inductor. Also, determine the Q factor of the
coil.

zto Inductance and CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

Yfi

st*Et@uattf:E*tf.*iflir;ffi .-lI

Solution
Equation8-25, Lp= C3Rfia
= 0.1p.Fx 1.26kO x 500O

= 63mH

1'26k!l!5oo o
Equations-24, R"= -
#
= 8.4kC)

Equation 8-6, o= 3-P

tttLp

8.4kO
2r.xl 00H zx63mH
- 11)

Example 8-9

(a) Calculate the series equivalent circuit for the Lp and Rp values determined in Exam-
ple 8-8.
(b) Determine the component values of R1 an.i.R3 required to balance the calculated L"
and R, values in the Maxwell bridge. Assume that R4 remains 500 O.

Solution
(a) Xr=ZrJl-r=/11 xl 00H zx63mH
= 39.6O

Equation 8-3,
_
p-L-
Rsc 8.4kO x (39.6O)2
' xj + R j (39.6O)2+ (8.4kO)2
= 0.187O

,. R:X, (8.4k0)2 x 39.6O

Equation 8-4, "'- xj+ n/ (39.6O)2+ (8.4kO)2
= 39.6O

, x, 39.6O
L'=
W= rrtrooH,
=63mH
(b) From Equation 8-22,
L, 63mH
^
l{r = -
C tR + 0.1pFx500O
= 1.26kQ

Sec. 8-4 Inductance Bridees 211

' cnFGF ?r?FBtrrFthjaEi€ifd*ri.+i$l+iitiiit*4i1"'fHl$$i$lg#${*.f*$T$ff&IffX}*Wlg!:lrg**igi
tt#lli#}!i;:i::r,. .,:f;.;

ff*'*fri*t*'ii'd{*ir.in,i'+i4'i{iiF''i,$r*f,i*|iii*i.r|.tfft*?-''erffh'iffirrsg''Jill

F:',LntEquatiott 8-2 l,

o
R tR o 1.26k{) x -ti)O
sz
I\J -_
R, 0.r87c)
= 3.37MO

Example 8-9 demonstratesthat the inductor parallel equivalentcircuit determined

in Example 8-8 actually representsa coil that has an inductanceof 63 mH and a coil re-
sistanceof 0.187 O. The seriesequivalentcircuit more correctly representsthe measur-
able resistanceand inductanceof a coil. Conversely,the parallel CR equivalent circuit
representsthe measurabledielectric resistanceand capacitanceof a capacitormore cor-
rectly than a seriesCR equivalentcircuit.
The (high) calculatedvalue of Rj in Example 8-9 shows that the low-resistance
(hi-eh-Otcoil cannot be convenientlymeasuredon a Maxwell bridge. Thus, the Hay
bridge is best for measurementof inductanceswith high Q. Similarly, it can be demon-
stratedthat the lr4axwellbridge is best for measurementof low-B inductances,and that
the Ha1'bridgeis not suitedto low-B inductancemeasurerneuts.
Some inductorswhich have neither very low nor very high B factorsmay easily be
measuredon either type of bridge. In this case it is best to use the Maxwell circuit, be-
causethe inductor is then measureddirectly in terms of its (preferable)seriesequivalent
circuit.

8-5 MULTIFLT{CTTON IMPEDANCE BRIDGE

All but one of the capacitanceand inductancebridgesdiscussedin the precedingsections

can be constructedusing a standardcapacitorand three adjustablestandardresistors.The
sineleexceptionis the inductancecomparisonbridge(Figure8-8).
Figure 8-11 shows the circuits of five different bridges constructedfrom the four
basic components.Theseare a Wheatstonebridge, a series-resistance capacitancebridge,
a parallel-resistance capacitancebridge, a Maxwell bridge, and a Hay bridge. Al1 five cir-
cuits are normalll'providedin commercialimpedancebridges.Suchinstrumentscontain
the four basiccomponentsand appropriateswitchesto set the componentsinto any one of
the fir'e configurations.A null detectorand internal ac and dc suppliesare also usually in-
cluded.

8-6 ]\{EASURTNG StrtrA,LL C, & AND L QUANTITTES

When measuringvery small quantitiesof C L, or R, the strctycapacitance,inductance,

and resistanceof connectingleads can introduce considerableerrors. This is minimized
by connectingthe unknown component directly to the bridge terminal or by means of
very short connectingleads. Even when such precautionsare observed,there are still
srnall internal L, C, and R quantitiesin all instruments.These are termed residuals, and

2r2 Inductance and Caoacitance Measurements Chao. 8

*reffi:'

.f raiiiii**i5i| .*d

(a) Wheatstone (b) Seriescapacitance (c) Parallel capacitance

(d) I{a->iwellbridge (e) Hay bridge

Figure 8-11 The standard capacitor and tiree precision resistors typically contained in a commer-
cial impedance bridge can be connected to function as a series-resistancecapacitancebridge, a paral-
lel-resistance capacitance,a Wheatstone bridge, a Maxwell inductance bridge, or a Hay inductance
bridge.

instrument manufacturers normally list the residuals on the specification. A typical im-
p€dancebridge has residuals of R = I x l0-3 ,f), C = 0.5 pf', andL = 0.2 pH. Obviously,
these quantities can introduce serious errors if they are a substantial percentageof any
measuredquantify.
The errors introduced by strays and residuals can be eliminated by a substitutiott
technique(seeFigure 8-12). In the caseof a capacitancemeasurement,the bridge is first
balancedwith a larger caiacitor connectedin place of the small capacitorto be measured.
The small capacitor is then connected in parallel with the larger capacitor, and the bridge
is readjustedfor balance.The first measurementis the large capacitanceC1 plus the stray
and residualcapacitanceC". So the measuredcapacitanceis C, + C". When the small ca-
pacitor C. is connected, the measured capacitanceis C, + C" + C,. C, is found by sub-
tracting the first measurementfrom the second.
A similar approach is used for measurementsof low value inductance and resis-
tance, except that in this case the low value component must be connectedin serie.swith
the larger L or R quantity. The substitution technique can also be applied to other (non-
bridge) measurementmethods.

Sec.8-6 MeasuringSmall C R, and,L Quantities 213

 r. llf,

c,=f,llc.

q llcn
/
, nu,
crpaciturcc

L.arge

{b) $mall cag*horcrmccred {c) It/t€err|rsnentgrv*s

Stray capacilamc af l'cct+ in perallcl with large c,ficoano
4ggo
nte3sUrcnrd aocurecy capacira fc mesrrrcmenl

Hgurt &12 Smy clplcitu*e cln serirxtrly nffecrthc aocuracyof rnnaflrsnerr of e srmll c*paci-
trx. For bcs accu::ry, tlrc unknownsnnll capacior (C,) stxxH be <marcoedin pralbl with a largcr
capacitrr. C. can lhen bcdrrcmincrl frofi thc rneuiurctlvalueof C,llCr.

&trl
"*m-t-
On the bddge in Example84 u new balarce is obtainedwhen a small caprcitor (C,) is
connecte{tin parallelwith the measuredcapacitor{,,. The new componentvaluesfor ba[-
alre as rtr = 369.3kO, fr3 = lO kfl, a1df' = 14.66kO. Detcrmirc tlrc vnltr of C. and
ils prallel resistiveco{nponentfir.

Matian
c^llc;=c:'+C'=
+&
fi.

O.l pt- x l0 kll

= rJ.682rl,F
t4.66k{}

C. = O.{I182pF - Cp= O.{1682

pF - O.{}68pf'
= 2fi) pF

Rtfr{ = 36tr.3rdl x 14.66kd)

awl R-llP-=
ltr t0 ktrA
= 541.4kO

rll
fr,' R, - &llR,,
- l _- _- - ::-

2t4 Indurtanu: arxl Capacitancc lVlcasurcnrcn$ Chlp. ll

 J
tlI frr-
- t/(f,,ll8p)- U.qp

Frcm Example 84, fo =553.1kdl

so ,t*
r/54r.4lfl - r/5s3.rkG
= 3OM{}

S.7 DIGITAL I. C, AND f MNASUREMENTS

Indurtance Mmsrernent

lnductance and capacitance musl be first conveft€d into voltages befbrc an-ymeas$r€ment
can be made by digital techniques.Figure 8-13 illustrates the bsrie mdhod.
In Figure 8-13(a) an ac voltage is applied to the noninyediug inprt terminal of an
operational amplifier. The input voltage is developed across resistor R1 to give a currcnt:
I = VlRr. This current also flows through the inductor giving a voltage drop: Vs = IX*, If
Vi = 1.592 Vrms,/- I kHz, fiq = I kf,l, and L = lt$ mH:

l'592v =r.592mA
t=L-
,tt, I kf,l
and V=l{Z^rlL)=l.S9?mAx?rr x I kHzx l0OmH
= I V{rmsi
when L=200 mH. Vy.= ? Vi wbenL = 300 rnH, Vs= 3 V; andso or.
It is seenthat the voltagedevelopedacrossL is directly proportionalto the induc-
tive irnpeilance.A plwse-sensitive detectar[Figure 8-13(a)l is employd to resolvethe
inductor volhge into quadratureand in-phasevoltages.Thesetwo componsntsrepresent
the seriesequivalentcircuit of the measuredinductor The voltagesarefed to digital mea-
suringcircuitsto displaythe seriesequivalentcircuit induclance1., the dissipationfac&x
(D = llQl, and/orthe O factor.

CapacitanceMereurrment
Capacitiveimpedanceis treatedin a similar way to inductiveimpedance,exceptthaf the
input voltageis developedacrossthe capacitorand the output voltage is nreasuredacross
theresistor[seeFigure8-13(b)].
In this caseI = Vy'Xnand V6=/rt. With V;= 1.592Vrmg"f - I kHz, frr = I kd), and
C= 0.1FF:
v.
| = -r-
v
=Vd2rfC)
/14

= 1.592Yx2s x I kHzx0.l pF

Scc. ll-7 l)igital 1.,(', and ll Measuremenls 213

 ;,iiw,}sd*il

Quacirature
I/
component
(1.592v 1 kIIz) Phase
4,ffi
sensitive
-." f f i detector
''ff i

s-
In-phase
t t l- - a - l ^ i t l
*.*er*! d component
- " #F*] ! #

---.*

(a) Linear conversion of inductive

impedance into voltage

v-

(1.592v 1 kl{z) Phase

:ensitive
detector

In-phase

"r
component

(b) Linear conversion of capacitive

impedance into voltage

Figure 8-13 Basic circuits for converting inuuctive and

capacitive ^^,ipedancesinto voltage compo-
nenls rbr elecronic measurement. The loitages
"re resolved into in-phase and quadrature compo_
nens tbr determination of the D and factors.
e

= l mA
and V a= IR = l mA xl kO
= I V (rms)
v h e n C :0 .2 p ,.4Vn= 2y) w hen C = 0.3 pF, V n= 3y;and
so on.
The voltage developed across R is directry proportional
to the capacitive imped_
ance' The phase sensitive detector
[Figure 8-13(b)] resolves the resistor voltase into

216 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. g

*.ngfifl3 ,#r

quadrature and in-phase components, which in this case are proportional to the capacitor
current. The displayedcapacitancemeasurementis that of the parallel equivalent circuit
(C).The dissipationfactor (It) of the capacitoris also displayed.

Capacitance Measurement on Digital Multimeters

Some digital multimeters have a facility for measuringcapacitance.This normallv in-

volves charging the capacitor at a constant rate, and monitoring the time taken to ar-
rive at a given terminal voltage. In the ramp generator digital voltmeter system in
Figure 6-1, the ramp is produced by using a constant current to charge a capacitor.
Figure 8-14 shows the basic method. Transistor Q1, together with resistors R,, Rr,
and R3. produce the constant charging current to capacitor Cr when Q2 is off. C1 is
discharged when Q2 switches on. (A similar circuit is treated in more detail in
Section 9-4.)
As alreaciy explained for the digital voltmeter, a ramp time (rr) of I s and a
clock generatorfrequency of 1 kHz result in a count of 1000 clock pulses, which is
then read as a voltage. If Vi remains fixed at 1 V the display could be read as a
measureof the capacitor in the ramp generator.A I pF capacitor might produce the
I s counting time, so that the display is read as 1.000 pF. A change of capacitance
to 0.5 pF would give a 0.5 s counting time and a display of 0.500 p.F. Similarly, a
capacitanceincreaseto 1.5 pF'would produce a 1.5 s counting time and a 1.500 pF
display. In this way, the digital voltmeter is readily converted into a digital capaci-
tance meter.

(Fixed
quantity) -+- V1

[-L]
i*',
*ct *irrV
Comparator
output

ri
F+- Counting ->i
tl

Cl oc k pul s es
d uri ng tl c an
be a measure
of capacitance

(a) Ramp generator circuit (b) Waveforms

Figure 8-14 Basic ramp generator circuit and waveforms for a digital voltmeter. If V; is a fixed
quantity, time Ir is directly proportional to capacitor C1, and the digital output can be read as a mea-
sure of the capacitance.

Sec. 8-7 Digital t C and R Instruments 217

 3gilb..*I
ffi

8-8 DIGITAL RCL METER

The digital RCL meter shown in Figure 8-i5 can measureinductance, capacitance, resis-
tance,conductance,anddissipationfactonThedesiredfunctionisselectedbypushbut-
ton. The range switch is normally set to the automatic (AUTO) position for convenience.
However, when a number of similar measurementsare to be made, it is faster to use the
appropriate range instead of the automatic range selection. The numerical value of the -
measurementis indicated on the 3]-digit display, and the multiplier and measuredquanti-
ty are identified by LED indicating lamps.
Four (cunent and potential) terminals are provided for connection of the compo-
nent to be measured.(See Section'7-4 for four-terminal resistors.) For general use each
pair of current and voltage terminals are joined together at two spring clips (known as
Kelvin clips) which facilitate quick connection of components. A ground terminal for
guard-ringmeasurements(sec Section7-6) is provided at the rear of the instrument.The
ground terminal together u,ith the other four terminals is said to give the instrumentTive-
terminal measurementcapability. Bias terminals are also available at the rear of the in-
strument, so that a bias current can be passedthrough an inductor or a bias voltage ap-
plied to a capacitor during measurement.
For R, L, C, and G, typical measurementaccuraciesap +[0.257o + (1 + 0.002 R, L,
C, or G) digitsl; for D, the measurementaccuracyis +(ZVo+ 0.010).
Resistancemeasurementsmay be made directly on the digital LCR instrument in
Figure 8-15 over a range of 2 Q to 2 MO. Conductanceis measureddirectly over a range

t lq q i[r[::
f--T-..]_
lL lc l el G lo

ffi

Figure 8-15 Digital impedance meter that can measure inductance, capacitance, resis-
tance, conductance,anC Cissipationfactor. (Courtesy of Electro Scientific Industries, Inc.)

218 Inductance and CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

- *ttraFEEtnntFffi{ffi'

ha'.l-iia*rf* srftnrF;ii'ir*rr.'ir*srir! -.lF

of 2 pS to 20 S. Resistancesbetween2 MO and 1000 MO can be measuredas conduc-

tances,and the resistancecalculatcC:R = llG. For example,a resistanceof 10 MO is
measuredas 0.100 pS.
Inductance and capacitance measurementsmay be made directly over a range of
200 pH to 200 H, and 200 pF to 2000 pF, respectively.The dissipation factor D is deter-
mined by pressing and holding in the D button while the L or C button is still selected.
The directly measuredinductance is the seriesequivalent circuit quantity f. The Q factor
of the inductor is calculated as the reciprocal of D:

^ a L " 1 = =- (seeSection8-1)
Q=
R"D

Direct capacitancemeasurementsgive the parallelequivalentcircuit quantity Co. ln

this caseD (for the parallel equivalentCR circi;it) is

t
D= (seeSection8-l)
aCoRo

\\/hen measuring lou, values of resistanceor inductance,the connecting clips

should first be shortedtogetherand the residualR or L valuesnoted (as indicateddigital-
ly). Thesevalues should then be subtractedfrom the measuredvalue of the component.
When measuringlow capacitances, the connectingclips shouldfirst be placedas close to-
gether as the terminals of the component to be measured(i.e., without connecting the
component). The indicated residual capacitance is noted and then subtracted from the
measuredcomponentcai:acitance.
Return to Figure 8-13(a) and assumethat a capacitoris connectedin place ofthe in-
ductor. The measuredquantity is displayedas an inductanceprefixed by a negative sign
on the RLC meter in Figure 8-15. The capacitiveimpedanceis equivalentto the imped-
anceofthe indicatedinductance:

I
tol" =
oCr

or c,=-+-
a'L,

For an indicatedinductanceof 100 mH, and a measuringfrequencyof I kHz,

C ,= = 0.25p.F
(2rrxl kH z)' x l 00mH

Similarly. inductancecan be measuredas capacitancewhen it is convenientto do so.

The digital RCL meter shown in Figure 8-16 displays the measuredquantity and
the units of measurement.It also displays the equivalentcircuit (parallel RC, seriesRL,
etc.) of the measuredquantity. ln RCL AUTO mode of operation,the dominating compo-
nent is measured,and its equivalent circuir is displayed. Any one of several parameters
(Q, D, R* R,, etc.) may be selectedmanually for measurement.

Sec.8-8 Digital RCI Meter 2r9

ffi*r* xia.'i8&

,l
*

Figure 8-16 Digital RCZ merer that displays the equivalent circuit of the measured
quantity,as well as the numericalvalue and the units. (@ 1991,John Fluke Mfg. co., Inc.
All rights reserved.Reproducedwith permission.)

8-9 O METER

Q-i\{eter Operation
Inductors.capacitors,and resistorswhich have to operateat radio frequencies(RF) can-
not be measuredsatisfactorilyat lower frequencies.Instead,resonancemethods are em-
plol'ed in which the unknown componentmay be testedat or near its normal
operating
frequency.The Q meter ts designedfor measuring the factor of a coil ancifor measur-
Q
ing inductance,capacitance,and resistanceat RF.
The basic circuit of a Q meter shown in Figure 8-17 consistsof a variable calibrat-
ed capacitor,a variable-frequencyac voltage source,and the coil to be investigated.Atl
are connectedin series.The capaciturvoltage (V) and the source voltage (E) are moni-
tored by voltmeters.The sourceis set to the desired:neasuringfrequency,and its voltage
is adjustedto a convenientlevel. CapacitorC is adjustedto obtain resonance,as indicated

C oi l
terminals

Signal generaror

Capacitor
terminals

Figure 8'17 A basic B meter circuit consistsof a stableac supply,a variable

capacitor,and a volt-
m e te r to m o n ito rthecapaci torvol tage.Whentheci rcui ti si nresonance,
V c=V uand,e__V s/E .

220 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. g

r#riffi '*

when the voltage across C is a maximum. If necessary,the source is readjusted to the de-
sired outprrilevei .,r'henresonanceis obtained.

At resonance: V c= V t and t=E

R

= 1
also o='L (8-26)
R coCR

and (8-27)

Example8-11

\\'hen the circuit in Figure 8-17 is in resonance,E = 100 mV R = 5 O, and Xp = X,

= 1 0 0Q.
h) Calculatethe coil Q and the voltmeterindication.
(b) Deterrnlne the Q factor and voltmeter indication for another coil that has R = l0 O
and X1 = 100 C) at resonance.

Solution
loomv =2omA
(a) 1=E=
R sf,)
Vt= l/r= I Y,
= 20mA xl 00O
= 2Y

v, = 2v =zo
o
- = E l 00mV
(b) For the second coil

E 100mV
t= A = = l 0mA
100
V1= Vr= | Nt
= l 0mA xl 00O
=lV

V, lV
o- - = - =lo
E 100mV

Sec. 8-9 QMeter 221

 *!'-*F rr
{ei, '*{ffi6ffi;#*iit!;,}{"#G$k'iia':}Esl;&'6'ii'{sT*i;ltrF

. . . ' + i , . r$ i

4Erffi

Q Meter Controls
Example 8-ll shows that wiren Q = 20 the capacitorvoltmeter indicates2 Y and when
Q = l0 the voltmeter indicates I V. Clearly, the voltmeter can be calibrated to indicate the
coil B directly [seeFigure 8-18(a)].
Ii the ac supply voltage in Example 8-11 is halved, the circuit current is also
halved. This results in V6'and V1 becoming half of the values calculated. Thus, instead of
indicating 2 Y for a Q of 20, the capacitor voltmeter would indicate only 1 V. The prob-
Iem of supply voltage stability can be avoided by always setting the signal generator volt-
age to the correct level or by having the signal generator output voltage precisely stabi-
lized. However, it can sometimesbe convenient to adjust the supply to other voltage
levels.If the 100 mV position on the supply voltmeter is marked as 1, and the 50 mV po-
sition is marked as 2, and so on, the supply voltmeter becomes a multiply-Q-by meter
[Figure 8-18(b)]. When E is set to give a I indication, all B values measuredon the ca-
pacitor voltmeter are correct. If E is set to the 2 position, measuredQ values must be
multiplied by 2. Instrumentsthat have a signal generatorwith a stabilizedoutput do not
use a meter for monitoring the sourcevoltage (i.e., there is no multiply-Q-by meter). In
this case.the voltagelevel of the supply is selectedby meansof a switch, and this switch
becomesa Q-meterrange control.
If the adjustablecapacitor in the Q meter circuit is calibrated and its capacitancein-
dicatedon a dial, it can be usedto measurethe coil inductance.From Equation 8-26,

'ffi
I

t a t Capacitorvoltmetercalibrated (b) Supply voltmeter calibrated as a

to monitor O multiply-Q-by meter

100

(c) Capacitance dial calibrated to

indicate coil inductance

Figure 8-18 With the Q-meter supply voltage (E) set to a convenient level, the ca-
pacitor voltmeter can directly indicate Q, the supply voltmeter can function as a muldply-
Q- by meter, and the capacitancedial can indicate coil inductance as well as capacitance.

222 Inductance and CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

 *!*F"t{*$i*{&rfiffiS
lrT fil tttt1t" tt

-:fffitr**. *i*{i#*r$i*r*riasi**ii*ar{,4ril!*iiidi*Ldftrd' ''ffi' 'flJlt

I I

a'C Q"ffc
Supposethatf = l.592MHz, and resonanceis obtainedwith C = 100 pF.

I
L-
(2:nxl.592MHz)"x l00pF
_ 100 p.H

When resonanceis obtained at the same frequency with C = 200 pF, L pH. Also, if
- 50
C = 50 pF at l.592MHz, L is calculatedas 200 pH. It is seenthat the capacitancedial
can be calibratedto indicatethe coil inductancedirectly (in addition to capacitance)[Fig-
u re 8 -1 8 (c )1 .
If the capacitordial is calibratedto indicateinductancewhen/= l.592MHz, any
changein/changes the inductancescale.For/= 15.92MHz and C = 100 pF,

L-
(2n x 15.92MHz)2x 100 pF
= 1p.H

With C : 200 pF and 50 pF, I becomes0.5 pH and 2 p"H, respectively.Therefore, if the

frequencf is changedin multiples of 10, the inductancescalecan still be used with an ap-
propriatemultiplying factor.
As an alternative to using a fixed frequency and adjusting the capacitor, it is some-
trmesconvenientto leave C fixed and adjust/to obtainresonance.In this case,the induc-
tance scaie on ihe capacitor dial is no longer usable.However, Equation 8-26 still applies,
so Z can be calculated from the C and fvalues.

Residuals
Residual resistanceand inductance in the Q meter circuit can be an important source of
error when the signal generator voltage is not metered. If the signal generator has a
sourceresistanceR6, the circuit currentat resonanceis

E ,E
I_ insteadof
RE+ R R
Also, the indicated Q factor of the coil is

aL
u=
R r+ R
insteadof the actual coll Q, which is

aL
Q=
R
Obviously, R6 must be much smaller than the resistanceof any coil to be investigated.
Similarlv. residual inductance must be held to a minimum to avoid measurementerrors.

Sec.8-9 QMeter 223

ffir

In a practicalQmeter, the outputresistanceof the signalgeneratoris around0.02 O, and

the residualinductancen'"y typicallyb:0.015 pH

Commercial QMeter

The Q meter shown in Figure 8- l9 has a meter for indicating circuit Q and a Q LIMIT
(rangel switch. A frequencydial with a window is included,and controls are provided for
frequencyrangeselectionand for continuousadjustmentof frequency.The L/C dial indi-
-# catesthe circuit Z and C and is adjustedby the seriescapacitorcontrol identified as UC.
.**&.,@ The -\C control (alongsidethe L/C control) providesfine adjustmentof the seriescapaci-
--r#rff
.#*.ia tor. Its dial indicatesthe capacitanceas a plus (+) or minus (-) quantity.The total resonat-
..geF
.#
ing capacitanceis the sum or differenceof that indicatedon the two capacitancedials.
-\Q ZERO COARSE and FINE controlsare situatedto the right of the Q indicating meter.
Theseare usedto measurethe differencein O betweentwo or more coils that have close-
11,equalQ factors.

\leasuring Procedures

\Iediunr-range inductance measurement(direct connection). Coils with in-

ductancesof up to about 100 mH can be connecteddirectly to the inductancetermi-
nals. as explained earlier. The signal generatoris set to the desired frequency,and its
output level is adjusted to a convenient Q-foctor range. With the AC capacitor
-qive
dial set to zero, the B capacitorcontrol is adjustedto give maximum deflection on the
Q metei. Thc Q factor of the coil is now read directly fiom the meter. The coil induc-
tance mav also b: read from the C/L dial if the signal generatoris set to a specified
frequencr'.When some oih"r frequency is employed, the inductancecan be calculated
from.f and C (Equation 8-25). With the coll Q and L known, its resistancecan also be
calcuiated.

Figure 8-19 HP4342A O meter has a deflection meter for indicaring Q, a frequency
dial. and an UC dial. (Courtesvof Hewlett-Packard.)

Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

 i "'fEFJt

:Hrlr@F.fi.r".Jr.t," '{flJ}
Tffi.-

Example8-12

With the sigi,-l generatorfrequency of a Q meter set to 1.25 MHz, the Q of a coil is mea-
suredas 98 when C = 147 pF. Determinethe coil inductanceand resistance.

Solution

From Equation 8-26,

tt
L= =-^
^
a'C (2nfi"C

(2r x 1.25MHz)2x 147pF

= l l 0pH

and u^aL= - K

2r.fL 2r x 1.25MHz x I l0 pH
-
o98
= 8.8f)

High-impedance measurements (parallel connection). Inductan:es greater

than 100 mH, capacitancessmallcr than 400 pF, and high-valueresistancesare best mea-
suredbv connectingthem in parallelwith the capacitorterminals.
For measurementof parallei-connectedinductance (lp), the circuit is first resonated
using a referenceinductor (or work coil).The values of C and Q are recorded as Cl and
Qr Lp is nou' connected,and the circuit is readjustedfor resonanceto obtain C2 and Q2.
The parametersof the unknown inductance are now determined from the following equa-
tions:

,- |
'
(8-28)
a-(C2 - C1)

QtQz(C z- C ) (8-2e)
O:
C { Qz- Q)

To measure a parallel-connected capacitance (Cp), the circuit is first resonated

using a referenceinductor, as before. The values of C1 and Q1 are noted. Then the capaci-
tor is connected.Resonanceis again found by adjustingthe resonatingcapacitorto give a
value C2. Normally, the circuit Q is not affected. The unknown capacitanceis

Sec.8-9 QMeter 225

 ffiis i*Fe*I'.i-nFi+rj'."{ii{,*.+
B*o"Y,:t

r*.r i**i5
.ry

(8-30)

Large-valueresistors(Rp) connectedin parallel with the,iesouatlng capacitoralter

the circuit p, but no capacitanceadjrlstmentis necessary(unlessRp also has capacitance
or inductance). Once again, the circuit is first resonated using a reference inductor. Then
Rp is connected,and the changein Q factor (AQ) is measured.The unknown resistanceis
calculated from

.-* d

.l #
/R -? I I
..* d

'..'.ff

Low-impedance measurements (series connection). Small values of resis-

tance, small inductors,and large capacitorscan be measuredby placing them in series
with the referenceinductor. The componentto be measuredis connectedbetween the
*<*

LO terminal of the Q meter and the low potential terminal of the reference inductor.
The other end of the reference inductor is connected to the HI terminal of the B meter.
Initially. a low-resistanceshorting strap is connectedto short-out the unknown compo-
nent. The circuit is now tuned for resonance(using an internal coil), and the values of
Q1 and C1 are noted. The shorting strap is removed, and the circuit is retuned for reso-
nance.
When a pure resistanceis involved, circuit resonanceshould not be affected by re-
moval of the shortingstrap.However,the circuit Q should be reduced.The changeto Q2
is measuredas AQ. The series-connected resistanceis now calculatedas

p"= --49- (8-32)

- <ttCrQrQz

A small series-connectedinductance (1") affects both the Q factor and the circuit
resonance.The circuit is initially resonatedwith L" shorted,and the capacitorvalue (C1)
is noted.The shortingstrap is removed,and the capacitoris readjustedfor resonanceand
its neu' r'alue(C) is recorded.The inductanceis now calculatedas

(8-33)

With a large series-connectedcapacitor (Cs), the circuit is first resonated with a

shorting strap acrossthe capacitor terminals. The strap is removed, and the circuit capaci-
tor is readjustedfor resonance.In this case, the Q of the circuit should be largely unaf-
fected. The series-connectedcapacitanceis

(8-34)

226 Inductanceand CapacitanceMeasurements Chap. 8

rytfltr*. :rfiii*{idti*lt *it6i*fiiriis! tIt^t

R E V TE i V QU B S TTON S

8-1 SketchRC seriesand parallelequivalentcircuits for a capacitor.Discussile capaci-

tor typesbestrepresentedby eachcil'^,-rit.
8-2 Derive equationsfor converting a seriesRC circuit i:rto its equivalentparallel cir-
cuit.
8-3 SketchRL seriesand parallel equivalentcircuits for an inductor. Explain which of
the two equivalentcircuits bestrepresentsan inductor.
8-4 Derive equationsfor converting a parallel Rl circuit into its equivalentseriescir-
cuit.
8-5 Define the O factor of an inductor. Write the equationsfor inductor Q factor with
Rl seriesand parallelequivalentcircuits.
8-6 Define the D factor of a capacitor.Write the equationsfor capacitorD factor with
RC seriesand parallelequivalentcircuits.
8-7 Sketch the basic circuit for an ac bridge and explain its operation-Discussthe ad-
justment procedurefor obtainingbridge balance,and derive the balanceequations.
8-8 Drar'.'the circuit diagrarnof a simple capacitancebridge. Derive the balanceequa-
tion. and discussthe limitations of the bridge.
8-9 Sketch the circuit diagram of a series-resistancecapacitancebridge. Derive the
equationsfor the measuredcapacitanceand its resistivecomponent.
8-10 Dra*'the phasordiagram for a series-resistance
capacitancebridge at balance.Ex-
plain.
8-11 Sketch thc circuit diagram of a parallel-resistance
capacitancebridge. Derive the
equationsfor the measuredcapacitanceand its resistive component.Discuss the
different applicationsof seriesRC and parallelRC bridges.
8-12 Sketch the circuit diagram of an inductancecomparisorrbridge. Derive the equa-
tions fcr the resistiveand inductivecomponentsof the measuredinductor.
8-13 Sketchthe circuit diagram of a Maxwell bridge. Derive the equationsfor the resis-
tile and inductivecomponentsof the measuredinductor.
8-14 Sketchthe circuit dia-eramof a Hay inductancebridge.Derive the equationsfor the
resistii'eand inductive componentsof the measuredinductor. Discuss the various
applicationsof the Maxwell and Hay bridges.
8-15 Sketchac bridge circuit diagramsshowing how a standardcapacitorand three ad-
justable standardresistorsmay be used to measurccapacitanceas a seriesRC cir-
cuit. capacitanceas a parallel RC circuit, inductanceas a seriesRL circuit, and in-
ductanceas a parallelRL circuit.
8-16 Discussthe problemsinvolved in measuringsmall C R, and L quantities,and ex-
plain suitablemeasuringtechniques.
8-17 Sketch the basic circuits for converting inductanceand capacitanceinto voltages
for digital measurements. Explain the operationof eachcircuit.
8-18 Draw a circuit and waveformsto show how capacitancecan be measuredon a digi-
tal multimeter.Exolain.

Revieu'Questions 227
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r;li

;ar !.r
" iit,
,cnInl

8-19 Draw the basic circuit diagram for 2 Q mcter, explain its operation,and write the
equation for Q factor.
8-20 Draw a practical Q-meter circuit, and discussthe various control si rrvolvedin Q -
meterneasurements.
8-21 Discussthe various methodsof connectingcompcnentsto a Q meter for measure-
ment. Explain briefly.

P R OB LE MS

8-1 A circuit behavesas a 0.01 p"F capacitorin serieswith a 15 kf,) resistancewhen

measuredat a frequencyof I kHz. If the terminal resistanceis measuredas 3l .l
kQ. determinethe circuit componentsand the connectionmethod.
8-2 When measuredat a frequencyof 100 kHz, an unknown circuit behavesas a 1000
pF capacitor anii a 1.8 kf) resistorconnectedin series.The terminal resistanceis
measuredas greaterthan 10 Mf,). Determinethe actualcircuit componentsand the
connectionmethod.
8-3 A sirnple capacitancebridge, as in Figure 8-5, usesa 0. I pF standardcapacitorand
nvo standardresistorseachof which is adjustablefrom I k0 to 200 k0. Determine
the minimum and maximum capacitancevaluesthat can be measuredon the bridge.
8-4 A series-resistance capacitancebridge, as in Figure 8-6, has a I kHz supply fre-
quency.The bridge componentsat balance are C, = 0. 1 pF, Rr = 109.5 O, R. = 1
kQ. and R+ = 2.I k0. Calculatethe resistiveand capacitivecomponentsof the mea-
suredcapacitor,and determinethe capacitordissipationfactor.
8-5 A parallel-resistance c;rpacitancebridge (Figure 8-7) usesa 0.1 pF capacitorfor C',
and the supply frequencyis I kI{2. At balance,Rt = 541 f,), R, = I kC), and R, =
666 Q. Determinethe parallel RC componentsof the measuredcapacitor,and cal-
culatethe capacitordissipationfactor.
8-6 Calculate the parallel equivalentcircuit components(C, and Ro) for the measured
capacitorin Problem 8-4. Also, determinethe values of R1 and Ra required to bal-
anceC, and Ro when the bridge is operatedas a parallel-resistance capacitorbridge.
Assumethat R3remains I kO.
8-7 An inductancecomparisonbridge (Figure 8-8) has Zr = 100 pH and R+ = 10 k,f).
\\/hen measuringan unknown inductance,null is detectedwith R' = 3-7.1O and
R: = 2l .93 k0. The supply frequencyis 1 MHz. Calculatethe measuredinductance
and its resistivecomponent.Also, determinethe Q factor of the inductor.
8-8 An inductor with a marked value of 100 mH and a Q of 2l at I kHz is to be mea-
suredon a Maxwell bridge (Figure 8-9). The bridge usesa 0.1 pF standardcapaci-
tor and a I kO standardresistorfor R1. Calculatethe resistancevaluesof Rj and Ra
at which balanceis likely to be achieved.
8-9 A Maxu'ell bridge with a l0 kHz supply frequencyhas a 0. I pF standardcapacitor
and a 100 O standardresistorfor R1. ResistorsR3 and Ra can eachbe adjustedfrom
100 0 to I kO. Calculatethe range of inductancesand Qfactors that can be mea-
suredon the bridge.

228 Inductance and Capacitance Measurements Chap. 8

r**emffir . ..#

8-10 A Hay bridge (Figure 8-10) with a 500 Hz supply frequency has C3 = 0.5 F.F and
R+ = 900 O. If balance is achieved when R1 = 466 O and R3 = 46.1 A, calculate the
inductance,resistance, and Q factor of the measuredinductor.
8-11 Calculate the seriesequivalent circuit componentsL" and R" for the Lo and Ro quan-
tities determined in Problem 8-10. Also, determine the resistancesof R1 and R3 re-
quired to balance Z, and R, when the circuit components are connected as a
Maxwell bridge. Assume that R4 and C3 remain 900 O and 0.5 pB respectively.
8-12 The Q-meter circuit in Figure 8-17 is in resonancewhen E = 200 mV R = 3 ,C),and
Xt= Xc = 95 C).Calculate the coil B and the voltmeter indication.
8-13 The voltmeter in the Q-meter circuit in Figure 8-17 indicates5 V when a coil is in
resonance.If the coil has R = 3.3 f,) and X, = 66 O at resonance,calculatethe coil
Q and rhe supply voltage.

Problems 229