Bord & Pillar

BORD AND PILLAR METHOD OF MINING
6.1 BORD AND PILLAR MINING SYSTEM

Bord and pillar mining method comprises two phases, i.e., development or 'whole working' and
depillaring or 'broken working'. Sometimes both these phases proceed simultaneously. In development,
pillars are formed by driving a network of galleries, of which one set is generally parallel to the dip and the
other set is parallel to the strike cutting the former at right angles. Figure 6.1 shows the basic parameters of
bord and pillar mining system.
6.1.1 Classification of Bord and Pillar Mining

System
The bord and pillar system of mining can be
done in three ways, namely;
1. Develop the entire area into pillars and then
extract the pillars starting from the boundary.
2. Develop the area into panels and extract pillars
subsequently panel-wise. This is called panel
system of mining,
3. "Whole" followed by "broken" working in
which the mine is opened out by a few headings
only and thereafter development and depillaring go on simultaneously starting from the boundary.
Development of entire area followed by pillar extraction
The first system (Figure 6.2) is attractive in that more number of working faces can be made
available and thus more number of miners can be given employment. Large output can be quickly built up.
In the past this system was practised widely in Indian mines and in certain mines with very few coal cutting
machines high outputs were obtained. But this system has the following disadvantages:
(i) As the pillars have to stand for a long time
before they are extracted, spalling takes
place and they get weakened.
Consequently, they may get crushed and
there is the risk of premature collapse.
(ii) Ventilation may be sluggish due to greater
percentage of air leakage,
(iii) Treatment of coal dust is costly and
difficult,
(iv) There is greater risk of fire spreading in the
whole mine.
(v) Coal dust explosion cannot be contained; if
it occurs, it spreads throughout the mine.
(vi) Crush and creep cannot be localised.
(vii) The work is scattered. Consequently, the
output per man-shift is low. Due to these
disadvantages this system is not used these
days.
The panel system of mining
In the Panel system of mining (Figure 6.3) the
coal seam is divided into a number of panels
separated from one another by solid barrier of coal.
This system offers the following advantages:
1) Risk of loss of" coal through spontaneous heating
is limited. In the event of fire occurring, the panel
can be isolated from other parts of the workings.
2) Similarly, explosions can be limited to the panel
of occurrence.
3) Crushing of pillars is avoided.
4) Creep and thrust (crush) started in any part of the
mine are arrested in their course and isolated in
their action.
5) 'Whole' and ‘broken’ workings can be done at the
same time i.e., in one panel development and in another panel depillaring can be done at the same time.
6) Ventilation is improved. Each panel can be provided with its separate intake and return. Also number of
air stoppings can be substantially reduced.
7) Control of subsidence is possible. By working panels of sub-critical width, magnitude of subsidence can
be reduced,
8) By suitable design using yield pillar techniques percentage extraction can be improved.
The main disadvantages of the panel system of mining are:
1) Considerable amount of coal is lost in barriers. Generally, in Indian practice roughly 20% of coal is lost
in the barriers.
2) More number of air crossings are required for ventilation purposes.
3) Each panel must have its own independent coal cutting machine and haulage. Flitting of coal cutting
machine from one panel to the other panel is not practicable.
4) Crushing of barriers may result in joining of two panels with consequent spread of fire (if it existed in
any one of the panels) and delayed and sudden subsidence.
"Whole" followed by "broken" workings

The current trend, however, is to open-out the mine with as few headings as possible (say three to
five) and retreat back from the boundary, 'broken' workings following the 'whole' workings (Figure 6.4} in
suitable size panels. This system is superior over others in the following respects:
1) Ventilation is efficient.
2) Coal dust treatment is simpler. Bord and
Pillar Method of Mining
3) With intensive machine mining high
outputs can be obtained. Even in the
opening out stage high outputs can be
obtained using intensive mechanisation
and output per man-shift (OMS) can be
high.
4) Organisation is simpler.
5) Crush and premature collapse of pillars
is a remote possibility.
6) Haulage can be simpler.
7) As the development and extraction of
pillars go together, same transport
system as for development can be used for extraction work also in its retreating passage.
8) Control of fire is comparatively easy.
6.2, DESIGN OF BORD AND PILLAR WORKINGS

The main elements of bord and pillar workings are: the size of the panel; the size of barriers; the size
of pillars; and the width and height of galleries. Their design must be based on critical techno-economic
analysis so as to give maximum operational efficiency and safety.
6.2.1 Size of the Panel

The main consideration in deciding the size of the panel is the incubation period of the coal seam.
The size is so fixed that the entire panel can be extracted within the incubation period without the
occurrence of spontaneous fire. This period in Indian coalfields generally varies from 6 to 12 months. The
high volatile coals of the Raniganj coalfield have shorter incubation period and the low volatile coals of
Jharia coalfield have longer period. For lignites the incubation period may be only a few weeks. The other
factor that influences the size is the rate at which extraction is done. With high rates of extraction made
possible by mechanisation, the size of the panel can be significantly increased. The extraction rate from
depillaring districts in Indian collieries averages about 250-300 tonnes per day per panel (in mechanised
depillaring it may be up to 500 tonnes per day). Generally, the size of the panel is about 150 m x 120 m
(Table 6.1). The following example will illustrate the method of fixing the size of the panel:
Assume incubation period of the seam = 6 months
Output per day from the panel = 300 tonnes
Number of working days in a month = 25
Total number of working day in 6 months = 150
Total coal obtained from the panel in 6 months = 150 x 300
Assume % recovery in the panel = 80%
Total coal in situ = 45,000 x (100 / 80) = 56,250 te
Coal in a pillar A x A x h x g = T tonnes
Where, A = length of a square pillar
h = height of the pillar
g = specific gravity of coal = 1.3 - 1.4
Number of pillars in the panel = 56,250 / T
Having determined the number of pillars in the panel, they are judiciously placed along the strike
(rows) and dip (column). It is a good practice to keep more number of pillars along the strike.
Table 6.1,
Size of depillaring panels
Name of the Name, of the Incubation Output Size of the Method of Remarks
Colliery/ coalfield seam/ thickness period, per day, panel goaf
months tonnes control
VIII A Incline New VIII A/5.25 m — 125 339 m x 70 m Stowing Extraction
Sudamdih in two lifts
section/Jharia
Loyabad/Jhana XIV/ 8 m — 200 91 m x 97 m Stowing Extraction
in three lifts
Godhar/Jharia X bottom/Jharai — 156 180 m x 90 m Stowing —
Sripur/Raniganj Koitheee/2.74 m 9 - 230 mx 230 m Caving _
do — do- Poniati/4.27 m 6 - 180 mx 180 m Caving —
Moira/Raniganj Kojora/6.3 m 6-8 300 1636 m2 Caving
do — do- Jambad/12.5 m 6-8 225 40900 m 2 Stowing Maximum
working
height4.8 m
Ningah/Raniganj Dishergarh/2.4m 15-18 194 150 mx 150 m Caving
Banki GUI/1 .8-2.7 m 15 285 250 m x 1 50 m Caving
Ramsagar Incline: Gordeba III 1.2m 18 380 80000 - 9000 Caving
Korba/Korba tonnes of coal
No. 5 Incline: King/5.38 to 8.05 9-12 200-250 190 mx 120 m; Caving
Kothagudem/Go m 150 m x 140 m
davari Valley 180 m x 155 m
Morgan Pit/ Ross/ 2.92 m 12 250 150 mx 150 m Caving
Godavari Valley do Salarjung/7.86 m 12 300 150 mx 150m Caving
— do-
Shanti Khani/ Middle/2.4 m 18 360 270 mx 150m Caving
Godavari Valley
Kalyan Khani No. 5 No. 3/ 2.63 m 18 450 155 mx 130m Caving
Incline/Godavari
Valley
Sometimes panel sizes are determined by strata control considerations. For example, in 'yield pillar'
technique the panel size is so fixed as to cause main abutment pressure to be carried by the barriers which
are made of substantial width and the pillars in the panel are made smaller so as to 'yield' and throw the
limbs of the main pressure arch on barriers. This way percentage extraction from a panel can be
substantially increased. According to Avershin (1961), the decrease in the loading of room pillars due to the
introduction of barriers does not exceed 30 per cent.
6.2.2 Size of the Barrier
The width of the barrier depends on the load which it has to carry and its strength. Greater the depth
of working, wider the barrier and also softer the coal, the more, the width of the barrier.
In practice, the width of the barrier enclosing pillars in a panel is usually the same as is the width of
the coal pillars which are enclosed within the panel. In deep mines the width of the barrier may become
quite large (up to 45 m) and so during extraction they are thinned down consistent with safety. Too much
reduction in the width of barrier is not advisable as in that case the barrier may be crushed and two goaves
may get joined, thus endangering safely. For the determination of the size of barriers around panels in which
the pillars are designed on the principle of "yield pillar" technique, it is necessary to take into consideration
the load at the abutments of the pressure arch and the strength of barrier pillars.
6.2.3 Size of Pillars
The size of pillars is influenced by the following:
1) Depth from the surface and percentage extraction in the first workings or development.
2) Strength of coal: Seams with weak coal require larger pillars. Effect of atmosphere and escape of gas
also influence the size of pillars.
3) The nature of the roof and floor. These influence the liability to crush and creep. A strong roof tends to
crush the pillar edges whilst a soft floor predisposes it to creep and both call for larger pillars.
4) Geological considerations: In the vicinity of faults, larger pillars are required. Dip and presence of water
also influence the decision as to the size of pillars.
5) Time dependent strain: With time the strain goes on increasing, the load remaining constant and if the
size of the pillar is not sufficiently large, then it may fail under the time dependent strain, although
initially it might be stable.
Also, with the passage of time spalling and weathering take place which reduce the strength of coal
pillars.
In India, the dimensions of pillars and the width and height of galleries are regulated by Regulation
99 of Coal Mines Regulations 1957. It is stipulated that the width of galleries shall not exceed 4.8 m and the
height of the galleries shall not exceed 3 m. For width of galleries ranging from 3 m to 4.8 m, the
dimensions of pillars for various depths of working are given in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2. Dimension of pillars and galleries at different depths
Depth of seam from the surface Where the Where the Where the Where the
width of width of width of width of
Galleries Galleries Galleries Galleries
does not does not does not does not
exceed 3 m exceed 3.6 m Exceed 4.2m Exceed 4.8m
The distance between centres of adjacent pillars shall not be
less than (metres)
Not exceeding 60 m 12.0 15.0 18.0 19.5
Exceeding 60 m but not exceeding 90 m 13.5 16.5 19.5 21.0
Exceeding 360 m 39.0 42.0 45.0 48.0
From Table 6.2 it may be seen that the size of pillar increases with the increase in depth as well as
with the width of galleries. As the depth of the working increases the strata pressure increases, the rate of
increase being 0.2306 kg. per cm 2 per m depth in Indian coalfields. Naturally, therefore, to support the
increased strata pressure, the size of the pillars must be increased with depth. With the increase in width of
galleries, the percentage extraction is increased (Table 6.3} which in turn results in greater strata pressure
per unit area of the solid pillar. To counteract that, the size of pillars again requires to be increased with the
increase in the width of galleries. The above provisions, inadequate though they are, have stood the test of
time.
The percentage extraction at different depths during development (formation of pillars) varies
between 14.8% and 43.7% (Table 6.3). At shallower depths the percentage extraction is higher and it
progressively decreases as the depth of mining increase. This is so as the pressure which pillars have to
support increases with depth. Reduced percentage extraction or alternatively larger size of pillars distributes
the overburden pressure over a larger area and it is expected that the pressure per unit area would be within
the capacity of the pillar to support the load.
Table 6.3: Percentage extraction in development at different depths by bord and pillar method
Depth of the seam from the surface, m. Where the width of galleries does not exceeds
3m 3.6 m 4.2 m 4.8 m
Not exceeding 60 m 43.7 42.2 41.2 43.17
Exceeding 360 14.8 16.4 17.8 19.0
Basic principles of pillar design

A pillar is designed to support the roof of a mine or a mine section. If the average load on the pillar
due to the overburden exceeds its average strength, the pillar will fail. Hence in order to specify the size of
pillars, it is essential to know (i) load acting on the pillars, and (ii) the strength of the pillar.
Load on pillars
The mechanics of loading of pillars
is rather complex and is not amendable to
exact mathematical analysis and the
presence of faults, dykes, slips, planes of
bed separation and other geological
features further complicate the loading
phenomena. Moreover, the pressure is not
evenly distributed even under relatively
normal conditions. For example, if the
developed area is circular in plan, the
pressure distribution may take the form of
a cone or parabola (Figure 6.5) so that the
pillars in the centre of the area experience
maximum stress (Steart, 1954).
In order to compute the pressure
acting on the pillar the following
assumptions are made:
1. Any element of the ground at a
depth d, below the surface is subjected to a pressure Plt, which depends on the weight of the superincumbent
rock so that:
P0= Wd ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. (1)
where, W = weight per unit volume of the super incumbent rock.
2. Each pillar supports the volume of the rock over an area which is the sum of the cross-sectional
area of the pillar plus a portion of the bord area, the latter being equally shared by all the pillars as
illustrated in Figure 6.6. (Denkhaus, 1962).
Figure 6.6; Column of ground supported by a pillar (After Denkhaus, 1962)
3. The load is vertical only and is uniformly distributed over the cross-sectional area of the pillar.
Based on the above assumptions, we get
P = P0 (a1+b1) (a2+b2) / a1b2 …………………………………………………………… (2)

where,
p = the pressure on the pillar
P0 = the initial ground pressure
a1, a2 - the widths of the pillar
b1, b2 = the widths of the bord.
If percentage extraction is R,
Then R = {(a1+b1) (a2+b2) - a1. a2 / (a1+b1) (a2+b2)
= 1- {(a1. a2) / (a1+b1) (a2+b2)} ………………………………………………………. (3)
After substitution, we get
P = Po {1/ (1-R)}
= Wd {1/ (1-R)} ……………………………………………………………………… (4)
If a1 = a2 =a. and b1 = b2 = b, the equation (2) becomes
p = p0 {(a+b)2 / a2}
and equation (3) becomes R = 1 - { a2/ (a+b)2 }
From equation (4) it should be possible to estimate the average pressure on the pillars. But the
application of equation (4) to compute the load on a pillar is not necessarily valid if the development area is
small. It is assumed that pillars experience full load only after an area greater than the depth of mining has
been developed. Researches done in South Africa have revealed that the pressure on pillars gradually
increases with increasing area of development to the maximum given by equation (4) and that the maximum
is reached when the development, if roughly circular in plans, 'attains a radius equal to the depth divided by
the ratio (a+b)2 / a2 (Streart, 1954).
Also researches done by Duvall (1948) have demonstrated that
(i) the pillars in the centre of the excavation are under more stress than the pillars near the sides;
(ii) the stress is not evenly distributed over the cross-section of an individual pillar, the
maximum stress occurring at the edge of the pillar;
(iii) the maximum stress occurs at the corner between pillar and roof or floor;
(iv) the stress on pillars increases with increasing percentage extraction; and
(v) the stress on pillar depends on the ratio of bord height to bord width.
Thus equation (4) may be used only as a rough guide, as first approximation, to calculate the average
pressure on pillars as function of depth and percentage extraction. Depending on the local conditions,
pressure on individual pillars may be more or less than that calculated by equation (4).
Further the distribution of pressure over the cross-section of the pillars is not uniform but the factor
of stress-concentration is not known. It follows, therefore, that there are many gaps in our knowledge to
exactly compute the pressure on pillars.
Strength of coal pillars

Determination of strength of coal pillars is difficult. The small specimens on which laboratory tests
are done do not have all the weaknesses which coal pillars will normally have. Attempts have been
therefore, made to determine the in situ strength of coal on large blocks. Greenwald, Howarth and Hartman
(1941) did large scale tests on pillars where height varied from 0.73 to 1.61 m and width from 0.30 to 1.61
m, the width: height ratio from 0.41 to 1.68. From their test results, they derived the following formula for
pillar strength:
S = 2880 W½ h-5/6
Where,
S = Ultimate crushing strength of the pillar in lb. /in.2
W = Width of the pillar in in.
h = Height of the pillar in in.
The National Mechanical Engineering Institute of the South African Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research has tested large size coal specimens up to 1.52 m. cube in situ. The test results have
shown that the strength of coal cubes decreased with the increase in die size of the cube until the side of the
cube became approximately 1 .52 m long. The strength of coal pillars S, was found to have the following
relationship with the width and height of the pillars. (Bieniawski, 1967):
S = 400 + 220(w/h) lb per in2
where, S = strength lb / in.2
W = width of the pillar h = height of the pillar
Based on the analysis of the stable and collapsed cases in South African bord and pillar workings,
Salamon and Munro (1967) have established the following formula for the strength of the pillars
S = K (Wα / Lβ)
where
S = strength of the pillar in lb/in2
K = a constant
= 1320 lb/in.2 which is the strength of 1 ft. cube of coal
W = width of pillar
h = height of the pillar
α = 0.46 and
β = 0.66
The Central Mining Research Station (India) has introduced another factor in the above formula to
take into consideration the effect of time on the strength of coal (Sheorey et al, 1982).
The formula for pillar strength as modified by Central Mining Research Station is given below
S = R K (W0.46 / L0.66) lb per in2

Where,
K- In situ strength of a 1 ft. cube of coal, and
R- the load expressed as the ratio of the failure load at which a final kink occurs in the load
determination curve plotted logarithmically and is equal to 0,81 to 0.88 for Indian coals. The in situ tests
have given the strength of Indian coals carried out on 1 ft. cubes of coal obtained from 51 coal seams (more
than 70 districts/ mines) varying from 18.28-164.02 kg/cm2 with modal value being 60.49 kg/cm2 (Sheorey,
Raju, Singh, Ghose and Singh, 1982).
Factor of safety
In the design of pillars a factor of safety is provided to take 'care of the errors in the computation of
strength and load on pillars. A factor of safety of about 1 .75 should be ample. Here again caution suggests
that the factors of safety should be 2.0-2.2. If extensive areas are mined and supported by more or less
uniform — sized pillars, then this is the only available approach to the design. If, however, the workings are
divided into panels by barriers as normally is the case, the pillars may be designed with smaller factor of
safety or rather in the failing region of full stress-strain curve determined by stiff testing machine. The load
of the super incumbent strata in this case is taken by the barrier pillars and the panel pillars are required to
support the immediate roof only so that the workings are stable.
Example
Given,
Depth of Workings = 200m (656.17ft)
Width of galleries = 3m (9.84 ft)
Height of galleries = 3m (9.84 ft)
Width of square pillars between centres of bords = 22.5 m (73.82 ft)
Find out (i) the strength, and (ii) the factor of safety of pillars.
Solution:
From Salomon's formula
S = 1320 x (W0.46 / L0.66)
where,
S = Strength of pillars, lb/in2.
W = Width of pillars, ft.
H = Height of galleries, ft.
There fore,
:. S = 1320 x {(73.82-9.84)0.46 / (9.84)0.66)}
= 1320 x {(63.98)0.46 / (9.84)0.66)}
= 1320 x {(6.773 / 4.522)}
= 1976.8672
Say, = 1977 lb/in2
= 138.97 kg/cm2
Load on pillars,
P = P d x (1/1-R)
where
P = density of strata
D = depth of working
R = percentage extraction
R = 1 – {a2 / (a + b)2}
where
a = width of pillars
b = Width of bords
:. R = 1-{(19.5)2 / (22.5)2 = 0.249999 = 0.25
Say,
Average density of Indian coal measure strata may be assumed to be approximately = 2.306
tonnes/m3.
Hence load on pillars, P = 2.306 x 200 x 1000 X 1 / (1- 0.25)
100x100
= 46.12 = 61,49 kg/cm2
0.75
:. Factor of Safety = Strength of pillars

Load on pillars
= 138.97 2.26
61.49
Use of nomographs
Salamon and Munro (1967) have designed a nomograph (Figure 6.7) to design the pillars, which is
valid for the South African coals up to depths of 152 182 m. The nomograph could be used for designing
coal pillars in other countries also provided the factor of safety is suitably adjusted in accordance with the
relative strength of coal.
Wilson and Ashwin (1972) basing their studies on theoretical analysis have produced a nomograph
for square pillars in bord and pillars workings (Figure 6.8). It will be seen that even for long term stability
30 x 30 m pillars could be sufficient over a great range of depth.
6.2.4 Width of Bords (Galleries)

Indian Coal Mines Regulations 1957 restrict the width-of galleries to a maximum of 4.8 m, whereas
in the USA, much wider galleries are quite common. In India, too, one can see much wider galleries in
certain collieries where original galleries have got widened for one or the other reason. Figure 6.9 (Zhitkov,
1975) shows a nomograph for estimating the width of galleries which takes into account, the thickness of
immediate roof, die modulus of elasticity of the roof material, lateral pressure, gravitational loading, etc.
With the use of this nomograph the width of the galleries in a particular locale can be scientifically
determined.
6.3 MINING PROCESSES

In the past mostly manual mining was done, but now-a-days explosives and machines play
increasing role in the mining process. The modern mining processes and systems may be divided into two
classes: (i) Cyclic mining which comprises cutting, drilling and blasting and loading of coal, and (ii)
Continuous mining in which cutting and loading go on simultaneously.
6.3.1 Cyclic Mining
Broadly, the cyclic mining uses the following combinations of operations:
1. Drill, blast and load, or
2. Cut, drill, blast and load.
Loading of the blasted coal may be done manually or by mechanical means. Amongst the
mechanical loaders gathering arm loaders, bucket loaders and scraper loaders are most common these days.
For the haulage of coal in the district both track haulages or trackless haulages or conveyors are in use.
6.3.2 Continuous Mining

Continuous mining uses the following equipment: continuous miners (ripping, milling, boring or
auger type), shuttle cars and conveyors.
6.4 DEVELOPMENT
Development of bord and pillar workings involves drivage of a set of galleries in the seam cut by
.another set of parallel galleries generally at right angles to them thus forming pillars surrounded by bords.
The drivage of galleries can be done in one of the following ways:
(i) Manual drivage, this method is now almost non-existent.
(ii) Drill and blast, i.e., blasting off the solid and manual or mechanical loading.
(iii) Cut, drill and blast and manual or mechanical loading.
(iv) Cut and load mechanically by continuous miners.
6.4.1 Development by Blasting off the Solid

In this method, shot
holes are placed on the face
by electric drills and coal is
blasted off the solid, using
P5 explosives. On a face 4.2
m wide x 2 .2 m high
generally 12 shot holes 1.5
m long each are drilled
which yield 10-12 tonnes of
coal per round of blasting
and give a progress of 1.2
m. Coal thus got is hand-
loaded.
Blasting off the
solid is especially suited for
drivages in steep seams in
which use of coal cutting
machines is difficult. A
common layout of the bord
and pillar working for
working by blasting off the
solid as adopted in
Godavari Valley Coalfield
is given in Figure 6.10. This
method is cheap and simple,
and in recent years it has
become quite popular in
Indian coal mines.
In some mines
Jumboo drills fitted with
augers have been
introduced in recent years to
drill shot holes and also to
put one or two large
diameter (30 cm dia) holes
on the face to which the
other shots fire. The purpose is to improve blasting efficiency, increase pull per round of blasting and to cut
down the total drilling time and thus increase panel production. Figure 6.11 shows the pattern of shot holes
with two 30 cm diameter holes, one on each side of the heading, and Figure 6.12 shows the pattern of shot
holes without large diameter holes. Trials done in a colliery in Godavari Valley coalfield show that the pull
increased from 1 m to 1.5 m and the coal got per kg of explosive increased from 2 tonnes to 2.3-2.5 tonnes
with the use of two large diameter holes one on each side of the face.
6.4.2 Development with Coal Cutting Machines
Figure 6.13 shows the development of a panel with five headings on the strike. The pillars are 150 ft
(45.72 m) square. The headings are undercut by a coal cutting machine and shotholes are then drilled and
charged with explosives and blasted. Blasted coal is hand loaded on to scraper chain conveyors which
transport the coal from the face to a central belt conveyor. The central belt conveyor conveys the coal to the
pit bottom. An output of up to 450 tonnes per day has been obtained by this method in a Colliery in
Raniganj coalfield (Kamra and Kapila, 1964). Each heading can be cut twice a shift, thus making a progress
of 3 m per shift. Figure 6.14 shows the method of development of a panel by driving five headings to the
dip. The equipments used in this case also are coal cutting machine, hand held electric drill, chain
conveyors, and a central belt conveyor which brings coal to a direct rope haulage installed in the main dip of
the district to transport coal to the pit bottom. An output of 450 tonnes per day has been obtained.
Figure 6.12: Some typical blast hole patterns (After Clark, H. Witton, CIM Bulletin,
6.4.3 Development using Gathering Arm Loaders and Shuttle Cars

Development of bord and pillar workings using coal cutting machine, gathering arm loaders and
shuttle cars has been tried out in many collieries in India. A typical layout for development of a horizon with
three headings in argada seam 21.33 m thick dipping at 1 in 2.8 has been illustrated in Figure 6.15. The
equipment comprised the following:
Crawler mounted coal cutting machine 1
Shuttle car 1
M & C Loader 1
Drill 1
Auxiliary fan with 76 cm ducting 1
The cycle of cutting, drilling, blasting and loading could be completed in 2- hours.
Mechanised room and pillar mining has been developed to a high degree of efficiency in the USA.
The latest and most successful system is known as the "conventional method" (Wood, 1975). Figure 6.16
illustrates a layout where the sequence of operations depends upon working a five entry system and forming
pillars 28.35 m X 28.35 m. This is in conformity with a mining restriction of 38% extraction. The layout
makes available 11 places where mining work can be carried out with one basic set of equipment item wised
as follow:
1 15 RV universal coal cutter-tyre mounted
1 14 BU Gathering arm loader
1 CD 71 A mobile coal drilling rig
1 Ratio feeder
1 10 SC cable reel shuttle car
1 Auxilliary supplies vehicle
Basically, the operation consists of the universal coal cutter working systematically in each entry
forming a 2.74 m, high by 5.48-6.40 m wide roadway. This is followed by the drilling and shotfiring
operation, and finally by the loading out operation by means of the gathering arm loader. The latter machine
feeds alternately the two cable reel shuttle cars which carry the coal back to the conveyor transfer station
situated in the middle roadway of the five entries. A ratio feeder at the point assists with the transfer from
shuttle car to conveyor. The final piece of equipment, the auxiliary supplies vehicle, ensures that there are
adequate supports at each place of work and also assists with the support setting by means of an in-built
hydraulic ram. Current trials with remote control equipment on the gathering arm loader are aimed at
increasing the efficiency of the system as well as ensuring that this operation is always working under
supported roof.
Manpower per shift

Cutter operator
Cutter operator's assistant 1
Shuttle car operators 1 (Support setting)
Gathering Arm Loader 2
operator 1
Coal drill operator 1
Utility man (supplies vehicle) 1
Shotfirers 2
Electrician 1
Mechanic 1(1 manshift/ day included in total number of oil and pick
Deputy man)
Overman 1
TOTAL 1
13
6.4.4 Development using Continuous Miners
Figure 6.17 (Singh, 1967) shows a panel with five headings on the strike in a seam 8.53 m thick
dipping at 1 in 14. The galleries were 4.8 m wide x 3 m high driven along the floor and the pillars were 27.4
m x 27.4 m from centre to centre. The miner cut the full width of a gallery in two settings. First, 2.59 m was
cut and then the miner was shifted to the next position to cut the other half of the gallery, the overlap being
30 cm.
The coal, thus cut, was loaded into a Torkar, three of which were provided to a miner: such that
when one was being loaded the other was discharging coal on to the belt conveyor and the third was
standing in 'Que' to be loaded. The face was ventilated by overlap ventilation.
With this arrangement a maximum progress of 39.62 m per day was obtained. Each panel had the
capacity to produce 20JXK) tonnes of coal per month. The equipment and crew comprised the following:
(i) Equipment:
Miner 1
Torkar 3
Belt conveyor 1
Face exhaust fan 1
(ii) Crew
Miner operator 1
Miner cable handling 1
Torkar drivers 3
Fan attendants 2
(iii) Follow up team
Extension of belt 6
Stone dusting and dust barrier, etc. 8 in only day shift.
6.5 EXTRACTION OF PILLARS

After the formation of pillar, their extraction is done from one end of the panel. If the development
was not done in panels, artificial panels of suitable sizes are created by building stoppings around the pillars
intended to be extracted such that the extraction of all the pillars of a panel is completed within the
incubation period as required under Regulation 118 A of the Coal Mines Regulation 1957. Further
Regulation 100 of CMR 1957 lays down certain conditions which must be complied with during the
extraction. Some of the statutory requirements are given below:
“100 (2) the extraction or reduction of pillars shall be conducted in such a way as to prevent as far as
possible, the extension of a collapse or subsidence of the goaf over pillars which have not been extracted.”
“(3) (a) save as provided by clause (b) no pillars shall be reduced or split in such a manner as to
reduce the dimensions of resultant pillars below those required by regulation 99 (Table 6.2) nor shall any
gallery be heightened as to exceed three metres.”
“(b) During the extraction of pillars, no splitting or reduction of pillars or heightening of galleries
shall be effected for a distance greater than the length of two pillars ahead of the pillar that is being
extracted or reduced.”
“Provided that where pillar extraction is about to begin in a district such splitting or reduction of
pillar or the heightening of galleries shall be restricted to a maximum of four pillars. The width of the split
galleries shall not exceed the width prescribed for galleries under Regulation 99 (4) (Table 6.2)”
“(4) Except where the voids formed as a result of extraction are stowed solid with sand or other
incombustible materials, no extraction of pillars in any seam or section shall be commenced until the fire
dams or stoppings have been provided in all openings, other than openings essential for ventilation and
haulage around the area to be extracted; and in the roads kept open for ventilation and haulage, foundations
for such dams or stoppings shall be prepared and bricks and other suitable materials shall be kept readily
available in their vicinity. Shale or other carbonaceous material shall not be used in the construction of fire
dams or stoppings.”
“(5) When the method of extraction is to remove all the coal or as much of the coal as is practicable
and to allow the roof to cave in, the operations shall be conducted in such a way as to leave as small an area
of uncollapsed roof as possible. Where possible suitable means shall be adopted to bring the goaf at regular
intervals”
Further, as a precaution against spontaneous combustion in a seam prone to autogenous fire
additional precautions have been stipulated in Regulation 118 A which reads as below:
“
118-A the following further precautions shall be taken against the danger of spontaneous heating:”
“(1) (a) the seam or-section shall be worked in panels having independent ventilation in such a
manner that it is possible to isolate one from another easily if necessary.”
Where development has already been made without regard to this factor, artificial panels shall be
created by the construction of stoppings. In determining the size of the panel due consideration shall be
given to the desirability of enabling complete extraction of pillars therein within the incubation period of the
coal. -_
"(b) No coal, shale or other carbonaceous material shall be left or stacked below ground. Where
removal of fallen coal out of the mine is not practicable, the area shall be effectively sealed off.
"(d) A panel shall be isolated by adequate stoppings as soon as it has been goaved out".
The essence of the regulations is
(i) to take effective steps for good roof control so as to prevent premature collapse and
overriding of pillars and to ensure regular caving of the roof; and
(ii) to take necessary steps against spontaneous heating so as to enable complete extraction of
coal without spontaneous combustion occurring and to be in readiness to seal off the
district is case spontaneous heating occurs.
6.5.1 Problems in the Extraction of Pillars

1) The operations of pillar extraction are beset with the problems of strata control. If the operations
have not been designed scientifically, there are the dangers of major strata movement setting in,
which may result in the overriding of pillars, and premature collapses. In the past and also in
recent years in the Jharia coalfield and elsewhere during extraction of pillars in thick seams,
especially in seams developed in multi-sections, premature collapses have occurred involving large
areas. Besides, in seams prone to bumps like Dishergarh seam extraction of pillars has led to
severe and frequent occurrences of bumps and considerable quantities of coal has been lost. In
some seams, the roof does not cave in over large areas for quite some time and/when it does cave
in, air blasts occur resulting in accidents. In Central India, air blasts of high intensity have occurred
in the past causing fatalities to miners.
2) Maintenance of acceptable environment is not easy. Splitting of pillars provides many leakage
routes and heightening and widening of galleries increase cross-sectional areas and hence the
velocity of ventilating air is reduced. The ventilation in depillaring faces often becomes sluggish.
Airborne dust concentrations increase and climatic conditions generally become uncomfortable.
3) Usually, some coal is left in the goaf, which may be 15-20% of the panel reserve. This gets
crushed, oxidation sets in and eventually fire may break out. There are numerous cases of fire
occurring in depillaring districts in Indian coal mines.
4) Mechanisation of coal getting is not easily possible on account of difficulty of roof control.
5) Because of the reasons given at 1.2 and 4 above, the production from a district is not high and the
output per man-shift is low.
6.5.2 Principles of Pillar Extraction Techniques

The principles of designing pillar extraction techniques are as given below:
1) Roof exposure at any one time should be minimal. In the Indian coalfields, where caving is practised,
60-90 m^ exposure is normally allowed. But in stowing districts the exposure may be increased up to
90-100 m2.
2) The size of the panel should be such as depillaring can be completed within the incubation period. This
period commonly varies between 6-9 months. But there are some seams in which fire has not occurred
even though depillaring has been going on for more than two years and yet there are some seams in
which spontaneous heating has been reported within three to four months of the commencement of
depillaring. In a lignite mine spontaneous heating took place within a few weeks only.
3) The extraction line should be so arranged as to facilitate roof control. In practice a diagonal line, (Figure
6.18) or step diagonal line of face (Figure 6.19) is common. In special cases a steep diagonal line of face
{Figure 6.20) or even straight line of face (Figure 6.21) has been selected. Diagonal or step diagonal line
of face provides protection as the working places are supported by solid pillars and also when the roof
caves, there is less risk of goaf flushing into the working faces. It is also claimed that diagonal line of
extraction helps in the caving of the roof.
In the panels worked in conjunction with hydraulic sand stowing step-diagonal line of face is
preferred as it facilitates water drainage without flooding the working faces in the lower level. Straight
line of face is rarely adopted; where it is adopted, it is to facilitate mechanisation in transport or in
special cases where pillars are extracted on longwall system.
4) The single-lift extraction is limited to heights of 4.8 m or less. If the thickness of the seam is more than
4.8 m, the extraction is done in multi-lifts and in that case hydraulic sand stowing is insisted upon.
Seams up to 4.8 m thick can be mined by caving in one pass.
5) Whatever the method of extraction, the working area is systematically supported by cogs and props.
6.5.3 Splitting of Pillars

As laid down in the Coal Mines Regulations 1957, splitting of pillars must not be done more than
two pillars ahead of the pillar being extracted and at the commencement of depillaring not more than two
pillars shall be splitted. This is done to reduced the zone of stress concentration for ensuring stability of the
workings, A question arises whether the splits should be dip-rise or on the strike? Dip-rise splits enable the
extraction to proceed on the strike. In this case haulage distance is comparatively less, the roof caving is
better controlled but if the goaf is to be stowed, stowing is not possible up to the roof. When the pillar is
splitted by a strike split, extraction is doing to the dip. In this case, haulage distance is more than that when
the pillar is splitted by dip-rise splits but stowing of the goaf to the roof is possible. If depillaring is done
with caving, the caving of roof is hindered when the pillar is splitted by level split and dip-rise slices are
extracted.
6.5.4 Factors Influencing Choice of Pillar Extraction Techniques

1) Thickness of the Seam: If the thickness of the seam is 4.8 m or less, depillaring with caving in one slice
may be done. In seams more than 4.8 m thick, pillars must be extracted in lifts in conjunction with
stowing. The lifts are normally 3 m thick or so. The last lift may be up to 4.8 m high and could be
extracted by stowing or caving.
2) Depth of the Seam: At greater depths, the pillars must be larger and they are extracted in conjunction
with stowing. Splits have to be driven on the strike.
3) Roof of the Seam: For successful depillaring roof must cave regularly. A roof with compressive strength
of less than 500 kg/cm2 is normally a cavable roof. Massive and strong roofs create problems in caving
and blasting may have to be resorted to induce caving.
4) Incubation Period of the Seam: A coal seam with longer incubation period may be extracted in larger
panels. To achieve the same effect, i.e. to make the panel larger, mechanisation of operations is
necessary in a seam with shorter incubation period so that rate of extraction is increased.
5) Dip of the Seam: In steeply inclined seams, special techniques of extraction have to be designed such as
Tippong method developed in Makum coalfield, Assam, India, or slant method, vermelles methods, etc.
developed in France.
6.6 EXAMPLES OF PILLARS EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

6.6.1 Thin Seams
Depillaring in thin seams, such as
Taltore seam 1.5 m thick, Raniganj coalfield,
has been done with caving with diagonal line
of face. Figure 6.22 illustrates the sequence of
extraction of pillars. Transport of coal in the
panel was done by hand tramming. Wide, low
height tubs were used and the floor was also
dinted to gain additional height. A pillar was
divided into four stocks by driving dip and rise
and strike splits. Stocks were extracted by
blasting off the solid and the blasted coal was
manually loaded into tubs. Roof was
supported by wooden props and cogs. The
OMS was low, generally not exceeding one
tonne. In some mines, in Central India, scraper
chain conveyors were used with success and
gave improved results.
A seam up to to 3 m thick is also
worked by the same method as above. In this case,
however, floor dinting is not necessary and tubs of
low height need not be used.
6.6.2 Coal Seam 3 to 4.8 m thick

As during development, the height of split
galleries is limited to 3 m. Hence in seams more than
3 m thick, the first step is to blast down the roof coal
in the splits and in the original galleries before
commencing the extraction of the stook. This
operation of roof heightening is done in small
stretches adjacent to the slice to be extracted as
heightening of roof over large area may create the
problem of stability. The height of extraction is kept
4.8 m leaving a layer of coal against the roof.
Figure 6.23 (Kapila and Kamra, 1964) shows
the layout of a depillaring district in Poniati seam 4.9
m thick, at a Colliery in Raniganj coalfield. The
seam dips at a gradient of 1 in 9 and occurs at a
depth exceeding 360 m. It was developed leaving
pillars 45 m x 45 m from centre to centre with
galleries 4.3 m wide x 2.1 m high. During development
7-8% of coal was extracted.
For depillaring the workings were divided into

sub-panels enclosing 12 pillars of which 9⅓ pillars
were extracted within the incubation period which was
nine months in this case. The barrier left between the
extraction sub-panels was equivalent to 2 ⅔ pillars.
As will be seen from Figure 6.23 a pillar was
divided into three stocks by driving dip splits 4.3 m
wide x 2.1 m high and each stook was then extracted by
level slices 6 m wide. A steep diagonal line of face was
maintained. The roof coal, 2.7 m thick was blasted
down in two stages; first 1.4 m thick roof coal was
brought down and next the upper layer, 1.3 m thick. A
rib 1.5 m thick was left between the slices which were
thinned down to 0.6 to 0.9 m on the retreat after the
extraction of a slice was completed. The workings were
supported by wooden props and cogs systematically. Figure 6.24 illustrates the system of support in the
depillaring section. When the extraction of a slice was completed, timbers were withdrawn and the roof was
allowed to cave.
6.6.3 Thick Seams

Caving methods
The major difficulty in extraction of pillars in thick seams is the difficulty of roof control and the
spontaneous combustion and both these are aggravated if the extraction is done by caving. All the same
some attempts were made in the past to extract the pillars in flat and thick seams by caving.
For example, a seam 14.63 m thick was extracted by caving in the Jharia coalfield. It was initially
developed in three sections. The first 2.77 m was developed along the floor, over which after leaving a
parting of 3 m, the second section (2.76 m high) was developed; the third section (3 m high) was developed
along the roof leaving a parting of 3 m below it. During depillaring, the lower sections were joined together
by puncturing the parting, thus making a section 8.53 m high which was extracted as a seam. The two
sections, i.e., the top 3 m section and the bottom 8.53 m sections were extracted simultaneously by caving
and the coal parting (3 m) was left in the goaf. The- top section face was kept in advance of the bottom 8.53
m section by about 15 m and the coal was handled by a common haulage.
In seams up to 8.53 m thick the widespread

practice has been to divide the pillars in four
stooks (equal quarters) and each stook was
extracted by blasting off the solid. After the
withdrawal of the timber the roof was allowed to
cave.
Methods such as the above resulted in
heavy losses of coal and quite often led to
spontaneous heating of coal. Adverse strata
control problems always existed and, in some
cases, premature collapses occurred. Hence, this
method is not practised these days.
As said earlier, the maximum height of
workings during depillaring is not permitted to
exceed 4.8 m and hence if extraction of pillars in
seams more than 4.8 m has to be done without
stowing, the height of workings is limited to 4.8
m, and the remaining section of the seam is lost in
the goaf. This is the widespread practice in the Godavari Valley Coalfield. Figure 6.25 illustrates the scheme
of extraction of pillars in king seam 8.83 m thick at a depth of 243.84 m. The height of galleries is 2.7 m
and the pillars 45 m x 45 m. The seam is extracted to a height of 4.8 m only, the balance is left and lost in
the goaf. A panel comprises 8-10 pillars, the incubation period of the seam being 12 months. A pillar is
splitted into three parts forming three stooks. These stooks are further subdivided into three parts and these
parts are extracted in slices so that the roof exposed at any one time is not more than 60 m 2. Coal is got by
blasting off the solid. A panel gives an output of 200 tonnes per day at an OMS of two tonnes. The
percentage extraction averages to 42.
Blasting Gallery Method
Basically this method comprises splitting of the pillars, drilling of a ring of shotholes to the full
thickness from the galleries and blasting the ring of the shotholes simultaneously using milli-second delay
detonators. The coal thus blasted is cleared by remotely controlled LHDs (Load-Haul-Dump Vehicles) and
the goaf is allowed to cave. Figure 6.26 shows the pattern of shotholes used and Figure 6.27 shows the
manner in which pillar extraction was done at a Colliery in Jharia coalfield using blasting gallery method
(Singh, 1989). The seam is 7.5 m thick and has a gradient of 1 in 7. It was developed along the floor on bord
and pillar method, the pillars being 23 m x 23 m (centre to centre). During extraction, the pillars were
divided in two parts by driving a split gallery 4.2 m wide x 3 m high. Splitting of pillars was done up to one
pillar ahead of the pillar under extraction.
From the galleries 4-5 m long x 42 mm
diameter shotholes were drilled in a ring
using Jumbo drills at a spacing of 1.4-1.6 m
between the successive shotholes leaving 0.6
m coal against the roof. The total number of
shotholes in a ring was 22. Each shot hole
was charged with 2 kg of explosive
(including explosive of detonating cord) and
all the shotholes of a ring were blasted in
one round using short delay detonators. Coal
was loaded out using remote controlled
LHDs with 3 m3 bucket.
Extraction was done from rise to dip, the line
of face being at approximately 60° to the levels. The
roof was supported by grouted cable bolt/steel bolts
spaced at 1.2 m in each row and rows we are at 1.4
m intervals. The junctions of galleries were
supported by steel joists placed on 40 ton hydraulic
props. The first junction from the goaf edge was
further reinforced by cogs erected in the dip and rise
galleries of a level.
In this method of pillar extraction goaf
control must receive careful attention else there is
the risk of overriding of pillars. Prop loads and
convergence should be monitored regularly. At East
Katras colliery study of convergence within 10-15 m
of the face has given good index far the management
of strata control in the district. An increase of 2 mm
convergence within this zone has indicated onset of
dangerous situation. The normal load on props was
6-10 tonnes at a distance of 15-18 m from the face,
the maximum being 21 tonnes which fell to 10-11
tonnes immediately after a roof fall.
This method is expected to give a production
of 400 tonnes per day from a panel. The percentage extraction is in excess of 70.
Stowing methods
Pillars in coal seams more than 4.8 m thick are normally extracted in conjunction with hydraulic
sand stowing in lifts of 3 m or so. Stowing is adopted for better roof control and as a precaution against
spontaneous combustion which are more
frequent in thick seams. Also, stowing results in
improved percentage recovery, and
conservation.
Basically, the method of extraction of
pillars with stowing is similar to that with
caving excepting that (i) the area of exposed
roof at any one time may be slightly more than
that exposed with caving; with stowing the
exposed are of about 100-150 m2 may be
permitted, and (ii) the line of extraction is
usually kept step-diagonal to facilitate drainage
of water so that working faces are not flooded.
Figure 6.28 (Singh, 1969) illustrates the method of extracting pillars in Liakdih seam (14.63 m thick)
at a Colliery in Raniganj coalfield. The seam is overlain by sandstone roof and at the floor it is burnt into
'Jhama1. The dip of the seam is 1 in 6. The seam was developed on bord and pillar method in two sections
(a) along the floor, and (b) along the roof with 1.82 m coal left in the roof. The pillars were 24.35 x 24.35 m
from centre to centre. As shown in Figure 6.28, a level split was driven in the pillar to be extracted; dip and
rise slices approximately 4.8 m wide were then taken from the original level up to half the distance of the
pillar. After extraction of the slice the void was slowed solid with sand leaving a rib of 1.8 m. The next slice
was then taken and so on. A diagonal line of face was maintained, the working face in the dip level being
kept in advance of the upper level face by half a pillar, i.e. by 12-15 m. After the first lift of all the pillars in
a panel was extracted and coal replaced with sand up to a height of 2.43 m, the second lift was developed
over the stowed goaf of the first lift and was extracted in the similar manner followed by the third lift. The
fourth lift was extracted from the top section already developed initially, below which about 3 m coal was
left to form a solid floor.
6.6.4 Extraction of Pillars in Thick and Steep Seams with Caving

In addition to the problems commonly faced in extracting pillars in thick seams, i.e., the problem of
roof control and fire, the steepness of the seam makes the stability of equipment and support difficult and
also there is the danger of sliding down of a pillar. Such seams are therefore, developed by level roadways
driven on the strike which are connected at suitable intervals to form pillars. These pillars are extracted from
rise to dip so that advantage could be taken of the gravity for the transport of coal from the rise to the level
on the dip side. Coal is obtained by blasting off the solid. But if the seams are highly prone to spontaneous
heating, then the method does not work.
The methods which have been developed for the extraction of pillars is thick and steep seams are the
Bhaska Method and Tipong Methods used in Assam.
Methods used in Assam
In the upper Assam coalfield there are two seams, which are 18 m and 6 m thick with gradients of
20° and 30°, the coal and overburden rocks are soft. The seams are highly prone to spontaneous heating and
are put in Category II gassy seams. The seams have been developed on bord and pillar method with pillars
30 m centres and the galleries 1.8 m x 1.8m. The 18-m seam has been developed in two sections. Two
methods have been tried for the extraction of pillars. They are locally known as 'Bhaska' method and
'Tipong' method and are described briefly as below:
(i) The Bhaska method: This is an old method (Figure 6.29). In this method each pillar is splitted in
9 stocks by driving two dip and two level splits; 1 m x 1.5 m high. Junctions of the galleries are widened by
knocking off the corners of stooks till an opening locally known as 'Bhaska' measuring 6 m x 6 m is made.
Only about 2 m thick coal along the floor is extracted and the area is supported on props. In the second
phase the props are withdrawn from the 'Bhaska' and the roof coal is allowed to cave. If the roof coal does
not fall down on its own, then it is blasted down and the roof stone is exposed. In this manner a height of
6m is attained: a rib of 1.5 m being maintained between two adjacent voids.
In the 18m thick seam the top section extraction line is kept in advance of the bottom section.
This method results in high loss of coal.
(ii) The Tipong method: The Tipong method (Figure 6.30) was tried in an experimental panel
(Prasad, Ganguli and Paul, 1977). At the site of experiment the seam has a gradient of 57-78°. The levels
were driven along the middle section of the seam 18m apart with rise-dip connections at every 9 m. Two
sublevels were driven between
two levels, the development
and the preparations for caving
we done almost
simultaneously. The portion of
rise gallery between the first
sublevel and the level below
was approached through the
first sublevel and widened and
heightened in the shape of a
funnel. A loading chute was
provided at the bottom. The
rise gallery between the upper
level and the first sublevel was
then widened to full thickness
of the seam.
Shotholes were drilled
all round and blasted from the
second sublevel to break the
coal in slices between the upper
level and the first sublevel, and
between the hanging wall and
footwall. Thus a chamber about
6 m wide along the strike was
made. The process was
repeated after leaving a rib of 3
m. Except for the funnel the
coal between a level and the
first sublevel was left solid.
This protected the level and
prevented mixing of stone
while working the lower
chambers. The extraction was
done from rise to dip
maintaining a diagonal line of
face. The percentage extraction
was about 60 per cent
excluding panel barriers.
This method, though an
improvement over the 'Bhaska'
method, exposes the workers to
accidents from falling coal and
the productivity also has not
been good.
6.6.5 Extraction of Pillars in Thick and Steep Seams with Stowing

Special techniques are used for the extraction of pillars in thick and steep seams which permit work
on the level. For instance, XIV seam 8.53 m thick was developed on bord and pillar system at a colliery in
Jharia coalfield and the pillars were extracted by sublevels in conjunctions with hydraulic sand stowing. For
development, two headings 18.28 m apart were driven along the floor of the seam and were connected every
15.24 m as shown in Figure 6.31
(Sharma 1958). From the junctions
crosscuts were driven towards the roof
of the seam and when the roof of the
seam was reached level galleries at right
angles to the main road were driven on
each side of the original crosscut levels.
A staple pit was sunk in each of these
levels to connect the companion road for
the transport of the coal. When these
levels in the roof coal were well clear of
the two main roads, cross-cut levels were
driven again—this time to touch the
floor of the seam. When the floor of the
seam was met, levels were driven east
and west along the floor of the seam.
These levels were connected by means
of rise and dip galleries 22.86 m apart.
For the extraction of
pillars a sublevel was driven
between two levels such that
one-third of the pillar was left
to the dip of the sublevel and
two-thirds of the pillar on the
rise side. The dip side one-
third pillar was subdivided
into three stocks which were
extracted in conjunction with
hydraulic sand stowing.
Simultaneously, another sub-
level was driven to divide the
rise-side two-thirds of the
pillar into two parts—also
extracted in the same way as
the first one-third pillar in
conjunction with sand
stowing. Technically, this method was satisfactory but the total output from a district was rather low.
Extraction of pillars in thick and steep seams which have been developed on modified horizon
system of mining needs igneous techniques. An experiment was carried out to extract pillars in Sirka seam
(15.99 m thick and dipping at 1 in 2.9), which was developed on horizon system of mining at a colliery in
Karanpura coalfield. Here the horizons were set off at vertical intervals of 15.99 m and each horizon
comprised a roof lateral, a mid-lateral and a floor lateral interconnected every 30 m to form two rows of
pillars. For the extraction of pillars galleries were driven from the floor-lateral of the top horizon to the
floor-lateral of the next bottom horizons; and from the roof-lateral of the top horizon to the roof lateral of
the bottom horizon. With these connections the pillars were extracted in three slices in ascending order in
conjunction with hydraulic sand stowing. Slices 5 m wide were taken up to 9 m length on each side of a
middle gallery as shown in Figure 6.32 (Singh, 1969). This system gave a recovery of over 80% and an
output of 200 tonnes per day from a panel.
6.6.6 Extraction of Pillars in Seams Developed in Multi-sections

In India's many coalfields, thick seams have been developed in more than one section. Seams up to 8
m thick have been developed in two sections: one along the roof and the other along the floor; seams of 12
m thickness have been developed in three sections; and seams of 18 m thickness in three or four sections.
Extraction of pillars in such situations has been beset with strata control problems. Cases of premature
collapses or puncturing of top section workings into lower sections have occurred in many mines, especially
in the Jharia coalfield.
A common method of extracting pillars in seams developed in multi-sections is to extract them in
conjunction with hydraulic sand stowing in lifts of 3 m or so. The last lift of a height not exceeding 4.8 m
could be worked by caving also successfully in some collieries.
The overall percentage extraction with most of these methods would range between 45 and 50. The
best percentage extraction achieved in an 8.1 m thick seam was 74 per cent when the bottom 4, m was
extracted with stowing and the top 4.1 m was extracted with caving. For seams thicker than 8 m the
percentage extraction comes to around 60% when caving can be done in the top section and to about 50%
where surface has to be protected.
6.6,7 Extraction of Pillars in Contiguous Seams

If the distance between the consecutive seams is small, the workings of one seam may affect the
workings of the other seam. If the workings of a seam are above the one being worked, the workings in the
top seam will certainly be affected. For example, in the Raniganj coalfield the workings of Ponoati seam
have adversely affected the workings of Koithee seam lying some 40-^45 m above. In the Donets coalfield
former U.S.S.R. 'under-mining' takes place, if the distance between two seams is less than 12 h + 3.5 h
where h is the working height of the seam in metres (Shevyakov, 1958). Even working the upper seam may
undermine the lower seam workings if the seams are sleep and the parting between them is small. In the
British coalfields, pillars left in a seam up to 274 m above the one being worked have affected the workings
in the lower seam (Scurfield, 1970). In India, seams lying within 9 metres of each other are termed as
contiguous seams and their workings must conform to certain statutory requirements as laid down in
Regulation 104 of Coal Mines Regulations 1957. It enjoins that "no work in a higher seam or section shall
be done over in an area in a lower seam or section which may collapse", and further lays down that "where
two or more such seams or sections are worked in a mine the pillars in one seam or section shall, as far as
practicable, be vertically above or below the pillars in the other seam or section unless the strata are inclined
at an angle of more than 30 degrees from the horizontal", and "the parting left between any two of such
seams or sections shall not be less than three metres in thickness at any place".
Possible alternatives for the extraction of contiguous seams
There arc three alternatives for extraction of contiguous seams
1. Extraction in the upper seam followed by extraction in the lower seam.
2. Extraction in the lower seam followed by the extraction in the upper seam.
3. Simultaneous extraction in both the seams.
1. Extraction in the Upper Seam followed by the Extraction in Lower Seam
If the upper seam is worked first and then the lower seam, the following effects may be expected:
1. Roof gets settled in the upper seam.
2. The upper seam goaf may get filled with water.
3. Strata break may extend down to the lower seam. If the seams are highly inclined and the
parting is comparatively less, the lower seam may be 'undermined'.
4. If the parting is too less, crush may take place in the lower seam and the upper seam goaf may
puncture in to the lower seam.
5. Migration of gas may take place from the lower seam to the upper seam. This may make gas-free
working in the lower seam.
6. If the lower seam is prone to bumps, distressing takes place by working the upper seam first and
subsequent working in the lower seams may be bump-free.
7. Angle of draw and subsidence may be more when the lower seam is worked below the ground
broken by the upper seam working.
8. Work in the lower seam is held up till the upper seam has been exhausted.
Alternative 2: Extraction in the Lower Seam Followed by Extraction in the Upper Seam
1. Workings in the lower seam will 'under mine' the upper seam: floor lifts, heaving and uneven
gradient and fractured roof may occur in the upper seam and the roof control becomes difficult.
2. If the parting is less, the roof may cave in the upper seam also and the pillars may be lost forever.
3. Bed separation at the roof in the upper seam may be caused due to the workings in the lower
seam which may be taken advantage of in blasting out the stocks.
4. No possibility of hold up of face in the lower seam workings.
5. With thinner parting both the seams may be worked from one roadway and even if the lower
seam has thinned out in certain areas its working is possible.
6. If the working in the upper seam followed quickly the face in the lower seam the surface effects
though violent will be short lived.
Alternative 3: Simultaneous Extraction in both the seams
1. This system gives good roof control.
2. It is possible to liquidate both the seams together without any water inrushing into the lower
seam as may be the case when the upper seam is worked first.
3. Surface effect though violent, are short lived. The surface gets settled quickly.
4. Higher outputs can be obtained from a panel as both seams are worked simultaneously.
All the above alternatives have their applications in different conditions. None of them can be of
universal application. But by and large, the extraction in descending order is preferred specially if extraction
is done with caving. Regulation 104 of Coal Mines Regulations 1957 also stipulates that "(1) No work in a
higher seam or section shall be done over an area in a lower seam or section which may collapse." In
designing the extraction system in contiguous seams the prime consideration is the stability of workings.
Indian Practices of Extraction of Pillars in Contiguous Seams
In India, pillars in contiguous seams have been extracted in a variety of ways. Basically, two
techniques have been used: (i) by caving, or (ii) with stowing. In thick contiguous seams extraction with
stowing is the common practice. When the extraction is done by caving, a parting, at least 3 m thick
between the top seam face and the bottom seam face must be maintained. In order to achieve this some
times it may be necessary to leave some coal also either at the floor of the top seam or at the roof of the
bottom seam so that the aggregate thickness of the parting is not less than 3 m. Extraction of pillars is done
simultaneously in both the seams if they lie within 9 m of each other. The order of extraction is always from
the top to the bottom; the line of face in both the seams being vertically over each other if the parting is
between 3-6 m and if the parting is 6-9 m, the top seam face leads the bottom seam face by half a pillar
distance. If the parting between the seams in more than 9 m, the extraction need not be simultaneous but the
extraction must be done in descending order, i.e., the upper seam must be worked first.
When the extraction is done simultaneously the optimum distance between the extraction line in the
upper seam and that in the lower seam can be determined graphically if the angle of break line is known.
For example, in Figure 6.33 there are two contiguous seams A and B. In the lower seam B, the goaf line is at
y. As a result of caving the breakage takes place along the line yy'. The face in the upper seam A must,
therefore, be beyond y' theoretically. Allowing for the span of the hold-up in seam A due to unforeseen
reasons, the face should be at X, the distance XY includes the face span and some allowance for the hold up
of face A. The distance XY by which the face in the upper seam A should lead the face in the lower seam B
is around 10-15 m.
Figure 6.33: Determining the optimum distance between the workings of two contiguous seams
(After Shevyakov, 1958)
There are certain situations when mining in the upper seam may cause undermining of the lower
seam. For example, in Figure 6.34 (a) there are two steeply inclined seams A and B. Working of the seam A,
between XX' will cause a break along X' Y which will cut the seam B at Y, i.e., the part of the lower seam B
lying above Y will be undermined, by working the upper seam A between XX'. In order to get over the
difficulty the sequence of workings in seams A and B must be suitably scheduled so that undermining does
not affect the stability of the workings. [Figure 6.34(b)]
Figure 6.34: Diagrammatic sketch illustrating the sequence of extraction of steeply inclined
contiguous seams (After Shevyakov, 1958)
When the extraction of pillars is done in conjunction with stowing, there could be flexibility in the
order the extraction is done in different seams. If however, the two thick contiguous seams are in close
proximity of each other partial extraction of pillars with stowing is done in the bottom seam first and next
the top seam is worked with full stowing or by caving in the upper slice to a maximum height of 4.8 m.
Example
At a colliery in the Jharia coalfield, XIII seam (6.6 m thick) and XIV seam (8 m thick) with a parting
of 1.5 m occur at a depth of 167.6 m and were developed on bord and pillar system. The
XIII seam was developed along the floor leaving 0.9 m inferior coal at the floor. The width and
height of galleries were 3.6 m and 2.6 m respectively and the pillars were 25.5 m x 25.5 m. The
XIV seam was developed along the roof in the same manner. The pillars and galleries in the XIV
seam were vertically above those in the XIII seam. During depillaring stage, the pillars in the XIII seam
were splitted and the splits were stowed with sand emplaced hydraulically leaving stooks 7.5 m x 7.5 m.
This operation was done in two lifts. Above the stowed pillars of XIII seam, XIV seam pillars were splitted
and the splits stowed with sand in the bottom lifts. Thereafter the 4.8 m section along the roof was extracted
fully with stowing. The sequence of extraction of XIII and XIV seams is illustrated in Figure 6.35. In
another variant the top 3.6 m section was extracted with caving. The stooks were extracted in slices so that
the exposed roof did not exceed 90 m 2. This method, however, did not work well. The above technique of
extraction of pillars has given the following percentage extraction:
% extraction in the XIII seam 50%
% extraction in the XIV seam where full top 4.8 m coal was extracted with stowing 65%
% extraction in the XIV seam where top 3.6 m was extracted with caving 60%
The working faces were supported by wooden props and chocks; the average consumption of timber
being about 8.49 m3/l,000 tonnes. The strata control did not present any problem and the subsidence of the
surface was between 5.48 and 16.45 cm.
At another colliery in Jharia coalfield the XIV seam (8.8 m thick) and the XIII seam (5.94 m thick)
occur close together with a parting of only 1.5-1.8 m. These seams were developed on bord and pillar
system, along the roof in the XIV seam and along the floor in the XIII seam. The size of pillars centre to
centre was 30.5 m and the width of galleries was 3.6 m. The pillars and galleries in the XIV seam were
vertically above those in the XIII seam. Only partial extraction was done in the XIII seam. After
development two rise to dip splits and two level splits 6.09 m wide x 4.5 m high were driven in each pillar;
giving an extraction of 60%. Stooks 7.5 m x 7.5 m were left in the goaf, along with roof coal 1.4 m thick.
All the galleries were stowed with sand. The XIV seam was worked in two lifts by longwall faces each lift
being 3 m high leaving a parting of 2.74 m between the lifts. The bottom face was leading the top face by
30.8 m. Both the top and bottom goaves were stowed solid with sand. Figure 6.36 illustrates the sequence of
operations.
6.6.8 Extraction of Pillars by Longwall Method

The longwall method of extraction of pillars permits concentration of workings, higher production
and productivity. But difficulty is encountered when the face crosses the galleries already formed. When the
face breaks into the old gallery, the span becomes too wide all on a sudden and it may be difficult to control
the roof. To get over this difficulty, galleries are stowed in advance. But the stowing material stowed in
advance in the galleries interrupts the advance of the face, which must be reopened after it has advanced one
pillar length. Some mining engineers suggest that the galleries should be stowed with run of mine coal and
some cementing material by pump pack systems and in that case the face may be advanced without
interruptions and the stowed run of mine coal may also be worked as a seam. This method, though
attractive, will be coastly Battarel (1977) has suggested that the galleries could be negotiated by oblique
face or by straight face in which the conveyor is snaked in stages (Figure 6.37). In either case strong
supports are required and the support density must be high as the load coming on supports will be much
higher than in normal longwall workings. When the seam has been developed in multi-sections, the load
coming on supports is increased manifold. It is estimated that if the seam is developed in two sections, the
load may be increased by four times (Battarel, 1977). In such cases, supports of very high resistance are
needed. Extraction of pillars should be done in descending order and some variant of sublevel caving may
be adopted (see Chapter 8).
6.6.9 Extraction of Pillars in Seams Prone to Bumps
During extraction of pillars in coal seams prone to bumps, the frequency of bumps increases which
may result in major accidents and dislocation of workings. Extraction of pillars in the Dishergarh coal seam
in Raniganj coalfield, has witnessed many serious accidents and experience indicates that the mining of
seams prone to bumps must not be done by bord and pillar mining. Where, however, pillars have laready
been formed, they should preferably be extracted by longwall methods in conjunction with hydraulic sand
stowing. Figure 6.38 illustrates the method of extracting pillars by longwall method in Dishergarh seam
which was successfully practised at a colliery in the Raniganj coalfield (Singh, 1964). The seam is 4.8 m
thick, dips at a gradient of 1 in 5.5 and occurs at depths in excess of 300 m. The development was done
along the floor leaving about 2.4 m coal in the roof. The pillars were 30 m x 30 m. The procedure of the
extraction of pillars was as follows:
(i) Roof coal was taken down in the galleries around the pillars to be extracted and those
galleries were stowed solid with sand, except that the rise level gallery was stowed half
and was fitted with track. Skirts S1, and S2 were driven: S1 for intake and S2 for opening
out the face (Figure 6.38B).
(ii) Top 2.1 m coal was worked and the face was advanced to a distance of 5.17 m from the
goaf line (Figure 6.38C).
(iii) Further progress of the face was stopped. Floor coal was extracted to a distance of 3 m
from the goaf line (Figure 6.38D).
(iv) Barricade was erected at a distance of 2.4 m from the goaf line measured at the roof level
and 3 m from the goaf line measured at the floor. The goaf was stowed solid with sand
(Figure 6.38E).
(v) The face was advanced to a distance of 5.1 m from the stowed goaf line (Figure 6.38F).
(vi) The process was repeated as at (iii) above leaving a rib of 0.6 m of coal at the floor; the
goaf was stowed and so on.
With this method there was no hold up at any stage. There were no bumps and no roof troubles. It
was on a few occasions, however, when roof falls took place in the level galleries but they could be easily
dealt with.
Where extraction of pillars by longwall methods is not possible, they should be extracted from one
side making sure that the extraction is always done in distressed zone (Figure 6.39). After a slice of 4 to 5 m
width has been extracted, it is stowed and leaving a rib of 1.5 m or so another slice is extracted and stowed
and the process is repeated (Singh, 1958).
The following precautions should be observed in the extraction of pillars in seams liable to bumps:
(i) Splitting of pillars should not be done. As the centre of the pillar is highly stressed
splitting through it promotes the occurrence of bumps.
(ii) Roof coal should be taken down within a distance of at least 2-3 pillars lengths of the line
of extraction as it is the roof coal (within the front abutment zones) which usually falls
down when the bumps occur, and causes accidents if the miners happen to be below it.
(iii) Blasting of coal should be restricted as blasting triggers off the occurrence of bumps.
(iv) Extraction should be done from one end of a panel. Extraction, if done, from both sides of
a panel causes concentration of stresses on the pillars between the two advancing goaves
and results in bumps.
Similarly, if splits have to be driven through the pillar or through the barrier, they should be driven
from one side only. It may be noted that based on the experiences of working South Staffordshire thick coal
seam, the Holland Committee (1946) reported that development galleries advancing towards each other
should be worked from one side only when within 18 m of each other.
6.7 ROOM AND PILLAR MINING
Room and Pillar mining or pillar and
stall mining (Figure 6.40) is a variant of bord
and pillar mining and is quite popular in the
United States. This system of mining
comprises entries, cross entries and panel
entries to block out large panels of coal.
Ro6ms are turned out from-the entries. They
are long lengths of galleries with ribs between
them. Cut-throughs are made through the ribs
at intervals for ventilation purpose. The rooms
may be normally 90 m long and 4.96-9.14 m
wide (Statham, 1951). The ribs or pillars
between the rooms may be (6 -12 m) wide 12-
27 m long (Woodruff, 1966). In room and
pillar mining about 50-80% of coal is
extracted in the first workings. The pillars
between the rooms may or may not be
extracted. When pillars are not to be extracted
they are made as narrow as possible but they
must be of such width as would be sufficient to support the roof.
The width of rooms depends on various factors, e.g., depth of workings, the width of machinery
used, thickness of seam and the magnitude -and direction of stress field. In thinner seams the rooms are
made as wide as possible in order to obtain more coal per metre advance of the room and also to provide
increased cross-section of rooms for the passage of ventilating air.
A typical layout of workings for mining moderately thick coal seams by room and, pillar method of
mining is shown in Figure 6.41.
Aubery (1965) has described four variants of room and pillar mining .methods successfully
employed in France. They are:
(i) The Vermelles method;
(ii) The slant method, and
(iii) The sublevel method.
In addition, a fourth method using coal saw has been used to extract pillars.
6.7.1 The Vermelles Method

This method (Figure 6.42) consists of opening up rooms (3.04 m) wide driven to the rise every 9.12
m, the pillars subsequently being worked out from right to left. All this is done by hand tools. The
conditions favouring the method are gradient 25-30°; seam thickness of at least 1.2 m and the seam should
not be prone to spontaneous combustion. The fire damp content is unimportant.
6.7.2 The Slant Method
In this method (Figure 6.43) short pillars are formed
by slanting rooms which contain 50% of the coal. The
extraction of pillars is done by blasting off the solid. The
pillars are extracted from rise to dip retreating parallel to the
main roads. The conditions in which this method is used
are: gradient of 40 to 70°; any seams thickness especially
thin seams and the coal which is not prone to spontaneous
combustion. The seam may be gassy.
6.7.3 The Sub-level Method

In this method the rooms may be horizontal (Figure
6.44) or they may be driven at a rising gradient of 25°. In
the former case the coal is cleared by ducbills and in the
latter case in the chutes by gravity. The slice or the pillar is
extracted by blasting over its full height which may be
15.20 to 21.28 m. At the time of blasting no man is present
in the panel. The conditions suited for this method are:
gradient of 60-90°; and the seam which is not prone to
spontaneous combustion and the seam must not be gassy.
All the above methods, i.e., the Vermelles method,
the Slant method; and Sublevel method are flexible and
adaptable to irregular formations. They offer the possibility
of increasing the number of working faces and
concentrated working. On a 60.9 m face a daily progress
2.74-3.19 m by two shift working can be obtained which is
not possible with any other method in steep seam mining.
6.7.4 The Coal Saw Method

Another method of extracting pillars is by the use
of saw (Figure 6.45). In this method holes of 85mm
diameter are drilled from the lower level to the upper level forming pillars 5 to 15 m wide which are
extracted by a chain saw which works on the rise side. This method is extremely successful as long as the
roof does not fall before the pillars have been completely extracted.

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BORD AND PILLAR METHOD OF MINING

6.1 BORD AND PILLAR MINING SYSTEM

6.1.1 Classification of Bord and Pillar Mining

"Whole" followed by "broken" workings

6.2, DESIGN OF BORD AND PILLAR WORKINGS

6.2.1 Size of the Panel

Basic principles of pillar design

P = P0 (a1+b1) (a2+b2) / a1b2 …………………………………………………………… (2)

Strength of coal pillars

S = R K (W0.46 / L0.66) lb per in2

:. Factor of Safety = Strength of pillars

6.2.4 Width of Bords (Galleries)

6.3 MINING PROCESSES

6.3.2 Continuous Mining

6.4.1 Development by Blasting off the Solid

6.4.3 Development using Gathering Arm Loaders and Shuttle Cars

Manpower per shift

6.5 EXTRACTION OF PILLARS

6.5.1 Problems in the Extraction of Pillars

6.5.2 Principles of Pillar Extraction Techniques

6.5.3 Splitting of Pillars

6.5.4 Factors Influencing Choice of Pillar Extraction Techniques

6.6 EXAMPLES OF PILLARS EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

6.6.2 Coal Seam 3 to 4.8 m thick

For depillaring the workings were divided into

6.6.3 Thick Seams

In seams up to 8.53 m thick the widespread

6.6.4 Extraction of Pillars in Thick and Steep Seams with Caving

6.6.5 Extraction of Pillars in Thick and Steep Seams with Stowing

6.6.6 Extraction of Pillars in Seams Developed in Multi-sections

6.6,7 Extraction of Pillars in Contiguous Seams

6.6.8 Extraction of Pillars by Longwall Method

6.7.1 The Vermelles Method

6.7.3 The Sub-level Method

6.7.4 The Coal Saw Method

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