HISTORY:- As part of the Fertile Crescent connecting Africa and Asia, the area now

known as Jordan has long been a major transit zone and often an object of contention
among rival powers. It has a relatively well-known prehistory and history. Neolithic remains
from about 7000 BC have been found in Jericho, the oldest known city in the world. City-
states were well developed in the Bronze Age (3200–2100 BC). In the 16th century BC, the
Egyptians first conquered Palestine, and in the 13th century BC, Semitic-speaking peoples
established kingdoms on both banks of the Jordan. In the 10th century BC, the western part
of the area of Jordan (on both banks of the Jordan River) formed part of the domain of the
Hebrew kings David and Solomon, while subsequently the West Bank became part of the
Kingdom of Judah. A succession of outside conquerors held sway in the area until, in the 4th
century BC, Palestine and Syria were conquered by Alexander the Great, beginning about
1,000 years of intermittent European rule. After the death of Alexander, the whole area was
disputed among the Seleucids of Syria, the Ptolemy of Egypt, and native dynasties, such as
the Hasmoneans (Maccabees); in the 1st century BC, it came under the domination of
Rome. In Hellenistic and Roman times, a flourishing civilization developed on the East Bank;
meanwhile, in southern Jordan, the Nabataean kingdom, a native Arab state in alliance with
Rome, developed a distinctive culture, blending Arab and Greco-Roman elements, and built
its capital at Petra, a city whose structures hewn from red sandstone cliffs survive today.
With the annexation of Nabataea by Trajan in the 2nd century AD, Palestine and areas east
of the Jordan came under direct Roman rule. Christianity spread rapidly in Jordan and for
300 years was the dominant religion.

The Byzantine phase of Jordan's history, from the establishment of Constantinople as the
capital of the empire to the Arab conquest, was one of gradual decline. When the Muslim
invaders appeared, little resistance was offered, and in 636, Arab rule was firmly
established. Soon thereafter, the area became thoroughly Arabized and Islamized,
remaining so to this day despite a century-long domination by the Crusaders (12th century).
Under the Ottoman Turks (1517–1917), the lands east of the Jordan were part of the
Damascus vilayet (an administrative division of the empire), while the West Bank formed
part of the sanjak (a further subdivision) of Jerusalem within the vilayet of Beirut.

During World War I, Sharif Hussein ibn-'Ali (Husayn bin 'Ali), the Hashemite (or Hashimite)
ruler of Mecca and the Hijaz, aided and incited by the United Kingdom (which somewhat
hazily promised him an independent Arab state), touched off an Arab revolt against the
Turks. After the defeat of the Turks, Palestine and Transjordan were placed under British
mandate; in 1921, Hussein's son 'Abdallah was installed by the British as emir of
Transjordan. In 1923, the independence of Transjordan was proclaimed under British
supervision, which was partially relaxed by a 1928 treaty, and in 1939, a local cabinet
government (Council of Ministers) was formed. In 1946, Transjordan attained full
independence, and on 25 May, 'Abdallah was proclaimed king of the Hashemite Kingdom of
Transjordan. After the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, King 'Abdallah annexed a butterfly shaped
area of Palestine bordering the Jordan (thereafter called the West Bank), which was
controlled by his army and which he contended was included in the area that had been
promised to Sharif Hussein. On 24 April 1950, after general elections had been held in the
East and West banks, an act of union joined Jordanian-occupied Palestine and the Kingdom
of Transjordan to form the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The is action was condemned by
some Arab states as evidence of inordinate Hashemite ambitions. Meanwhile, Jordan, since
the 1948 war, had absorbed about 500,000 of some 1,000,000 Palestinian Arab refugees,
mostly sheltered in UN-administered camps, and another 500,000 nonrefugee Palestinians.
Despite what was now a Palestinian majority, power remained with the Jordanian elite loyal
to the throne. On 20 July 1951, 'Abdallah was assassinated in Jerusalem by a Palestinian
Arab, and his eldest son, Talal, was proclaimed king. Because of mental illness, however,
King Talal was declared unfit to rule, and succession passed to his son Hussein I (Husayn ibn-
Talal), who, after a brief period of regency until he reached 18 years of age, was formally
enthroned on 2 May 1953.

Between the accession of King Hussein and the war with Israel in 1967, Jordan was beset
not only with problems of economic development, internal security, and Arab-Israeli
tensions but also with diffi culties stemming from its relations with the Western powers and
the Arab world. Following the overthrow of Egypt's King Faruk in July 1952, the Arab
countries were strongly influenced by "Arab socialism" and aspirations to Arab unity (both
for its own sake and as a precondition for defeating Israel). Early in Hussein's reign, extreme
nationalists stepped up their attempts to weaken the regime and its ties with the United
Kingdom. Notwithstanding the opposition of most Arabs, including many Jordanians, Jordan
maintained a close association with the United Kingdom in an effort to preserve the
kingdom as a separate, sovereign entity. However, the invasion of Egypt by Israel in October
1956, and the subsequent Anglo-French intervention at Suez, made it politically impossible
to maintain cordial relations with the United Kingdom. Negotiations were begun to end the
treaty with Britain, and thus the large military subsidies for which it provided; the end of the
treaty also meant the end of British bases and of British troops in Jordan. The Jordanian
army remained loyal, and the king's position was bolstered when the United States and
Saudi Arabia indicated their intention to preserve Jordan against any attempt by Syria to
occupy the country. After the formation of the United Arab Republic by Egypt and Syria and
the assassination of his cousin, King Faisal II (Faysal) of Iraq, in a July 1958 coup, Hussein
turned again to the West for support, and British troops were flown to Jordan from Cyprus.

When the crisis was over, a period of relative calm ensued. Hussein, while retaining Jordan's
Western ties, gradually steadied his relations with other Arab states (except Syria),
established relations with the USSR, and initiated several important economic development
measures. But even in years of comparative peace, relations with Israel remained the focus
of Jordanian and Arab attention. Terrorist raids launched from within Jordan drew strong
Israeli reprisals, and the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) often
impinged on Jordanian sovereignty, leading Hussein in July 1966, and again in early 1967, to
suspend support for the PLO, thus drawing Arab enmity upon himself. On 5 June 1967, an
outbreak of hostilities occurred between Israel and the combined forces of Jordan, Syria,
and Egypt. These hostilities lasted only six days, during which Israel occupied the Golan
Heights in Syria, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, and the Jordanian West Bank, including all of
Jerusalem. Jordan suffered heavy casualties, and a large-scale exodus of Palestinians (over
300,000) across the Jordan River to the East Bank swelled Jordan's refugee population
(700,000 in 1966), adding to the war's severe economic disruption.
After Hussein's acceptance of a cease-fire with Israel in August 1970, he tried to suppress
various Palestinian guerrilla organizations whose operations had brought retaliation upon
Jordan. The imposition of military rule in September led to a 10-day civil war between the
army and the Palestinian forces (supported briefly by Syria which was blocked by Israel),
ended by the mediation of other Arab governments. Subsequently, however, Hussein
launched an offensive against Palestinian guerrillas in Jordan, driving them out in July 1971.
In the following September, Premier Wasfi al-Tal was assassinated by guerrilla commandos,
and coup attempts, in which Libya was said to have been involved, were thwarted in
November 1972 and February 1973.

Jordan did not open a third front against Israel in the October 1973 war but sent an armored
brigade of about 2,500 men to assist Syria. After the war, relations between Jordan and
Syria improved. Hussein reluctantly endorsed the resolution passed by Arab nations on 28
October 1974 in Rabat, Morocco, recognizing the PLO as "sole legitimate representative of
the Palestinian people on any liberated Palestinian territory," including, implicitly, the
Israeli-held West Bank. After the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty of 1979, Jordan joined other
Arab states in trying to isolate Egypt diplomatically, and Hussein refused to join further
Egyptian-Israeli talks on the future of the West Bank.

After the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and the resulting expulsion of Palestinian
guerrillas, Jordan began to coordinate peace initiatives with the PLO. These efforts
culminated in a February 1985 accord between Jordan and the PLO, in which both parties
agreed to work together toward "a peaceful and just settlement to the Palestinian
question." In February 1986, however, Hussein announced that Jordan was unable to
continue to coordinate politically with the PLO, which scrapped the agreement in April 1987.
The following year the King renounced Jordan's claim to the West Bank and subsequently
patched up relations with the PLO, Syria, and Egypt. In 1990, owing largely to popular
support for Saddam Hussein, Jordan was critical of coalition efforts to use force to expel
Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Relations with the United States and the Gulf states were
impaired; Jordan lost its subsidies from the latter while having to support hundreds of
thousands of refugees from the war and the aftermath. Jordan's willingness to participate in
peace talks with Israel in late 1991 helped repair relations with Western countries. In June
1994, Jordan and Israel began meetings to work out practical steps on water, borders, and
energy which would lead to normal relations. And, later that year, Jordan and Israel signed a
peace treaty, ending the state of war that had existed between the two neighbors for
decades. Relations with the major players in the Gulf War also improved in the years after
the war. In 1996, Jordan and Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait were well on the way toward
establishing normal relations.

Internally in the 1980s, Hussein followed policies of gradual political liberalization which
were given new impetus by serious rioting over high prices in 1989. In that year, for the first
time since 1956, Jordan held relatively free parliamentary elections in which Islamists gained
more than one-third of the 80 seats. Martial law was ended in 1991 and new parliamentary
elections were held in 1993. The King's supporters won 54 seats with the Muslim
Brotherhood and its allies taking 18 places, the largest bloc of any party. However, the 1997
elections were boycotted by a number of opposition groups, who complained of unfair
election laws, and the new upper house of parliament appointed by King Hussein did not
include any members of Islamist groups.

In 1998 Hussein underwent treatment for cancer in the United States and delegated some
of his powers to his brother, crown prince Hassan, who was next in the line of succession to
the throne. The following winter, however, Hussein named his son Abdallah heir apparent.
On 8 February 1999 King Hussein died, ending a 46-year reign; his funeral was attended by
dignitaries from countries throughout the world. King Abdallah II pledged his support for the
Middle East peace process, a more open government, and economic reforms requested by
the IMF. However, there was widespread uncertainty about how the untested 37-year-old
heir would meet the challenges thrust upon him.

His first year in power reassured many observers, both at home and abroad. Domestically,
he pushed through a series of trade bills that helped pave the way of the country's
admission to the WTO, which came in April 2000, and declared his intention of
implementing wide-ranging administrative and educational reforms. On the international
front, Abdallah played a role in the resumption of talks between Israel and Syria and also
took a firm stance against the presence of Islamic extremists in his own country, driving the
radical Hamas organization out of Jordan.

Abdallah dissolved parliament in June 2001, elections were postponed twice, and were held
in June 2003. Independent candidates loyal to the king won two-thirds of the seats. In
October 2003, a new cabinet was appointed following the resignation of Prime Minister Ali
Abu al-Ragheb. Faisal al-Fayez was appointed prime minister. The king also appointed three
female ministers. In April 2005, a new cabinet was sworn in, led by Prime Minister Adnan
Badran, after the previous government resigned amid reports of the king's unhappiness over
the pace of reforms.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Jordan enacted a
series of temporary laws imposing sharp restrictions on the right to public assembly and
protest. A law broadened the definition of "terrorism," and allowed for the freezing of
suspects' bank accounts. The number of offenses carrying the death penalty was increased,
and journalists who publish articles which the government deems harmful to national unity
or to be incitement to protests were subject to three years' imprisonment.

In October 2002, senior US diplomat Laurence Foley was assassinated outside his home in
'Ammān. In April 2004, eight Islamic militants were sentenced to death for their role in the
assassination.

In March 2005, Jordan returned its ambassador to Israel after a four-year absence. Jordan
had recalled its envoy after the start of the al-Aqsa intifada in 2000.

As part of the Fertile Crescent connecting Africa and Asia, the area now known as Jordan has
long been a major transit zone and often an object of contention among rival powers. It has
a relatively well-known prehistory and history. Neolithic remains from about 7000 bc have
been found in Jericho, the oldest known city in the world. City-states were well developed in
the Bronze Age (c.3200–2100 bc). In the 16th century bc, the Egyptians first conquered
Palestine, and in the 13th century bc, Semitic-speaking peoples established kingdoms on
both banks of the Jordan. In the 10th century bc, the western part of the area of Jordan (on
both banks of the Jordan River) formed part of the domain of the Hebrew kings David and
Solomon, while subsequently the West Bank became part of the Kingdom of Judah. A
succession of outside conquerors held sway in the area until, in the 4th century bc, Palestine
and Syria were conquered by Alexander the Great, beginning about 1,000 years of
intermittent European rule. After the death of Alexander, the whole area was disputed
among the Seleucids of Syria, the Ptolemies of Egypt, and native dynasties, such as the
Hasmoneans (Maccabees); in the 1st century bc, it came under the domination of Rome. In
Hellenistic and Roman times, a flourishing civilization developed on the East Bank;
meanwhile, in southern Jordan, the Nabataean kingdom, a native Arab state in alliance with
Rome, developed a distinctive culture, blending Arab and Greco-Roman elements, and built
its capital at Petra, a city whose structures hewn from red sandstone cliffs survive today.
With the annexation of Nabataea by Trajan in the 2nd century ad, Palestine and areas east
of the Jordan came under direct Roman rule. Christianity spread rapidly in Jordan and for
300 years was the dominant religion.

The Byzantine phase of Jordan's history, from the establishment of Constantinople as the
capital of the empire to the Arab conquest, was one of gradual decline. When the Muslim
invaders appeared, little resistance was offered, and in 636, Arab rule was firmly
established. Soon thereafter, the area became thoroughly Arabized and Islamized,
remaining so to this day despite a century-long domination by the Crusaders (12th century).
Under the Ottoman Turks (1517–1917), the lands east of the Jordan were part of the
Damascus vilayet (an administrative division of the empire), while the West Bank formed
part of the sanjak (a further subdivision) of Jerusalem within the vilayet of Beirut.

During World War I, Sharif Hussein ibn-'Ali (Husayn bin 'Ali), the Hashemite (or Hashimite)
ruler of Mecca and the Hijaz, aided and incited by the United Kingdom (which somewhat
hazily promised him an independent Arab state), touched off an Arab revolt against the
Turks. After the defeat of the Turks, Palestine and Transjordan were placed under British
mandate; in 1921, Hussein's son 'Abdallah was installed by the British as emir of
Transjordan. In 1923, the independence of Transjordan was proclaimed under British
supervision, which was partially relaxed by a 1928 treaty, and in 1939, a local cabinet
government (Council of Ministers) was formed. In 1946, Transjordan attained full
independence, and on 25 May, 'Abdallah was proclaimed king of the Hashemite Kingdom of
Transjordan. After the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, King 'Abdallah annexed a butterfly shaped
area of Palestine bordering the Jordan (thereafter called the West Bank), which was
controlled by his army and which he contended was included in the area that had been
promised to Sharif Hussein. On 24 April 1950, after general elections had been held in the
East and West banks, an act of union joined Jordanian-occupied Palestine and the Kingdom
of Transjordan to form the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Th is action was condemned by
some Arab states as evidence of inordinate Hashemite ambitions. Meanwhile, Jordan, since
the 1948 war, had absorbed about 500,000 of some 1,000,000 Palestinian Arab refugees,
mostly sheltered in UN-administered camps, and another 500,000 nonrefugee Palestinians.
Despite what was now a Palestinian majority, power remained with the Jordanian elite loyal
to the throne. On 20 July 1951, 'Abdallah was assassinated in Jerusalem by a Palestinian
Arab, and his eldest son, Talal, was proclaimed king. Because of mental illness, however,
King Talal was declared unfit to rule, and succession passed to his son Hussein I (Husayn ibn-
Talal), who, after a brief period of regency until he reached 18 years of age, was formally
enthroned on 2 May 1953.

Between the accession of King Hussein and the war with Israel in 1967, Jordan was beset
not only with problems of economic development, internal security, and Arab-Israeli
tensions but also with diffi culties stemming from its relations with the Western powers and
the Arab world. Following the overthrow of Egypt's King Faruk in July 1952, the Arab
countries were strongly influenced by "Arab socialism" and aspirations to Arab unity (both
for its own sake and as a precondition for defeating Israel). Early in Hussein's reign, extreme
nationalists stepped up their attempts to weaken the regime and its ties with the United
Kingdom. Notwithstanding the opposition of most Arabs, including many Jordanians, Jordan
maintained a close association with the United Kingdom in an effort to preserve the
kingdom as a separate, sovereign entity. However, the invasion of Egypt by Israel in October
1956, and the subsequent Anglo-French intervention at Suez, made it politically impossible
to maintain cordial relations with the United Kingdom. Negotiations were begun to end the
treaty with Britain, and thus the large military subsidies for which it provided; the end of the
treaty also meant the end of British bases and of British troops in Jordan. The Jordanian
army remained loyal, and the king's position was bolstered when the United States and
Saudi Arabia indicated their intention to preserve Jordan against any attempt by Syria to
occupy the country. After the formation of the United Arab Republic by Egypt and Syria and
the assassination of his cousin, King Faisal II (Faysal) of Iraq, in a July 1958 coup, Hussein
turned again to the West for support, and British troops were flown to Jordan from Cyprus.

When the crisis was over, a period of relative calm ensued. Hussein, while retaining Jordan's
Western ties, gradually steadied his relations with other Arab states (except Syria),
established relations with the USSR, and initiated several important economic development
measures. But even in years of comparative peace, relations with Israel remained the focus
of Jordanian and Arab attention. Terrorist raids launched from within Jordan drew strong
Israeli reprisals, and the activities of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) often
impinged on Jordanian sovereignty, leading Hussein in July 1966, and again in early 1967, to
suspend support for the PLO, thus drawing Arab enmity upon himself. On 5 June 1967, an
outbreak of hostilities occurred between Israel and the combined forces of Jordan, Syria,
and Egypt. These hostilities lasted only six days, during which Israel occupied the Golan
Heights in Syria, Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, and the Jordanian West Bank, including all of
Jerusalem. Jordan suffered heavy casualties, and a large-scale exodus of Palestinians (over
300,000) across the Jordan River to the East Bank swelled Jordan's refugee population
(700,000 in 1966), adding to the war's severe economic disruption.

After Hussein's acceptance of a cease-fire with Israel in August 1970, he tried to suppress
various Palestinian guerrilla organizations whose operations had brought retaliation upon
Jordan. The imposition of military rule in September led to a 10-day civil war between the
army and the Palestinian forces (supported briefly by Syria which was blocked by Israel),
ended by the mediation of other Arab governments. Subsequently, however, Hussein
launched an offensive against Palestinian guerrillas in Jordan, driving them out in July 1971.
In the following September, Premier Wasfi al-Tal was assassinated by guerrilla commandos,
and coup attempts, in which Libya was said to have been involved, were thwarted in
November 1972 and February 1973.

Jordan did not open a third front against Israel in the October 1973 war but sent an armored
brigade of about 2,500 men to assist Syria. After the war, relations between Jordan and
Syria improved. Hussein reluctantly endorsed the resolution passed by Arab nations on 28
October 1974 in Rabat, Morocco, recognizing the PLO as "sole legitimate representative of
the Palestinian people on any liberated Palestinian territory," including, implicitly, the
Israeli-held West Bank. After the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty of 1979, Jordan joined other
Arab states in trying to isolate Egypt diplomatically, and Hussein refused to join further
Egyptian-Israeli talks on the future of the West Bank.

After the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in 1982 and the resulting expulsion of Palestinian
guerrillas, Jordan began to coordinate peace initiatives with the PLO. These efforts
culminated in a February 1985 accord between Jordan and the PLO, in which both parties
agreed to work together toward "a peaceful and just settlement to the Palestinian
question." In February 1986, however, Hussein announced that Jordan was unable to
continue to coordinate politically with the PLO, which scrapped the agreement in April 1987.
The following year the King renounced Jordan's claim to the West Bank and subsequently
patched up relations with the PLO, Syria, and Egypt. In 1990, owing largely to popular
support for Saddam Hussein, Jordan was critical of coalition efforts to use force to expel
Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Relations with the United States and the Gulf states were
impaired; Jordan lost its subsidies from the latter while having to support hundreds of
thousands of refugees from the war and the aftermath. Jordan's willingness to participate in
peace talks with Israel in late 1991 helped repair relations with Western countries. In June
1994, Jordan and Israel began meetings to work out practical steps on water, borders, and
energy which would lead to normal relations. And, later that year, Jordan and Israel signed a
peace treaty, ending the state of war that had existed between the two neighbors for
decades. Relations with the major players in the Gulf War also improved in the years after
the war. In 1996, Jordan and Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait were well on the way toward
establishing normal relations.

Internally in the 1980s, Hussein followed policies of gradual political liberalization which
were given new impetus by serious rioting over high prices in 1989. In that year, for the first
time since 1956, Jordan held relatively free parliamentary elections in which Islamists gained
more than one-third of the 80 seats. Martial law was ended in 1991 and new parliamentary
elections were held in 1993. The King's supporters won 54 seats with the Muslim
Brotherhood and its allies taking 18 places, the largest bloc of any party. However, the 1997
elections were boycotted by a number of opposition groups, who complained of unfair
election laws, and the new upper house of parliament appointed by King Hussein did not
include any members of Islamist groups.

In 1998 Hussein underwent treatment for cancer in the United States and delegated some
of his powers to his brother, crown prince Hassan, who was next in the line of succession to
the throne. The following winter, however, Hussein named his son Abdallah heir apparent.
On 8 February 1999 King Hussein died, ending a 46-year reign; his funeral was attended by
dignitaries from countries throughout the world. King Abdallah II pledged his support for the
Middle East peace process, a more open government, and economic reforms requested by
the IMF. However, there was widespread uncertainty about how the untested 37-year-old
heir would meet the challenges thrust upon him.

His first year in power reassured many observers, both at home and abroad. Domestically,
he pushed through a series of trade bills that helped pave the way of the country's
admission to the WTO, which came in April 2000, and declared his intention of
implementing wide-ranging administrative and educational reforms. On the international
front, Abdallah played a role in the resumption of talks between Israel and Syria and also
took a firm stance against the presence of Islamic extremists in his own country, driving the
radical Hamas organization out of Jordan.

Abdallah dissolved parliament in June 2001, elections were postponed twice, and were held
in June 2003. Independent candidates loyal to the king won two-thirds of the seats. In
October 2003, a new cabinet was appointed following the resignation of Prime Minister Ali
Abu al-Ragheb. Faisal al-Fayez was appointed prime minister. The king also appointed three
female ministers. In April 2005, a new cabinet was sworn in, led by Prime Minister Adnan
Badran, after the previous government resigned amid reports of the king's unhappiness over
the pace of reforms.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, Jordan enacted a
series of temporary laws imposing sharp restrictions on the right to public assembly and
protest. A law broadened the definition of "terrorism," and allowed for the freezing of
suspects' bank accounts. The number of offenses carrying the death penalty was increased,
and journalists who publish articles which the government deems harmful to national unity
or to be incitement to protests were subject to three years' imprisonment.

In October 2002, senior US diplomat Laurence Foley was assassinated outside his home in
'Ammān. In April 2004, eight Islamic militants were sentenced to death for their role in the
assassination.

In March 2005, Jordan returned its ambassador to Israel after a four-year absence. Jordan
had recalled its envoy after the start of the al-Aqsa intifada in 2000.

Ethnic and Religious Groups

In addition to the Christian denominations described previously, there are other small
communities of religious minorities scattered throughout Jordan. A small community of
Druze live in Jordan, mainly near the Syrian border. There is also a community of Druze in
Azraq, in the east of the country. Several other minorities complete Jordan’s social mosaic.
Several thousand Armenians live in Amman and in other parts of the country. The north
Jordan Valley hosts a small community of Turkomans and Baha’is, who moved from Iran to
Jordan to escape persecution in 1910.

In the late nineteenth century, Chechens, another Caucasian people, migrated to

Jordan from Grozny in waves. Over the years, they have assimilated into Jordanian society,
while maintaining their special culture and charm. For example, it is a marriage tradition
among the Chechens, for the groom to capture his future bride with her consent and against
the will of her family. This was seen as a measure of manhood, horsemanship and bravery.
Today, this practice continues, but has taken on more of a ceremonial nature.

Political condition
King Hussein ruled Jordan from 1953 to 1999, surviving a number of challenges to his rule,
drawing on the loyalty of his military, and serving as a symbol of unity and stability for both the
Jordanians and Palestinian communities in Jordan. King Hussein ended martial law in 1989 and
ended suspension on political parties that was initiated following the loss of the West Bank to
Israel and in order to preserve the status quo in Jordan. In 1989 and 1993, Jordan held free and
fair parliamentary elections. Controversial changes in the election law led Islamist parties to
boycott the 1997, 2011 and 2013 elections.
King Abdullah II succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999.
Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's peace treaty with Israel and its relations with
the United States. Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda
on economic reform.
Jordan's continuing structural economic difficulties, burgeoning population, and more open
political environment led to the emergence of a variety of political parties. Moving toward greater
independence, Jordan's parliament has investigated corruption charges against several regime
figures and has become the major forum in which differing political views, including those of
political Islamists, are expressed.
On February 1, 2012, it was announced that King Abdullah had dismissed his government. This
has been interpreted as a pre-emptive move in the context of the Tunisian Jasmine Revolution
and unfolding events in nearby Egypt.

Key People

Sayyid Hussein bin Ali

Sayyid Hussein bin Ali was the Sharif of Mecca, and Emir of Mecca from 1908 until 1917,
when he proclaimed himself King of Hejaz, which received international recognition. He
initiated the Arab Revolt in 1916 against the Ottoman Empire during the course of the First
World War. In 1924, he further proclaimed himself Caliph of all Muslims. He ruled Hejaz
until 1924, when, defeated by Abdul Aziz al Saud, he abdicated the kingdom and other
secular titles to his eldest son Ali.

Abdullah I bin al-Hussein, King of Jordan

Abdullah I bin al-Hussein played a key role as architect and planner of the Great Arab Revolt
against Ottoman rule, leading guerrilla raids on garrisons. He was the ruler of Transjordan
and its successor state, Jordan, from 1921 to 1951 – first as Emir under a British Mandate
from 1921 to 1946, then as King of an independent nation from 1946 until his assassination.

Hussein of Jordan
Hussein bin Talal was the King of Jordan from the abdication of his father, King Talal, in
1952, until his death. Hussein led Jordan through the Cold War and four decades of Arab-
Israeli conflict. He recognized Israel in 1994, becoming the second Arab head of state to do
so.
Abdullah II of Jordan
Abdullah II bin al-Hussein is the current King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. He
ascended the throne on 7 February 1999 after the death of his father King Hussein.

Queen Noor of Jordan

Queen Noor of Jordan, born Elizabeth (Lisa) Najeeb Halaby, is the last wife and widow of
King Hussein of Jordan. She was queen consort of Jordan between 1978 and 1999. Since her
husband’s death in 1999, she has been queen dowager of Jordan. American by birth, she
acquired Jordanian citizenship and renounced her American citizenship at the time of her
marriage. She is the current president of the United World Colleges movement and an
advocate of the anti-nuclear weapons proliferation campaign, Global Zero.

Queen Rania of Jordan

Rania al-Abdullah is the current Queen consort of Jordan as the wife of King Abdullah II of
Jordan. Queen Rani has focused her energy, at home and abroad, on a variety of causes. In
Jordan, her work concentrates on the caliber and quality of education for Jordanian
children, while abroad she advocates for global education and for world leaders to fulfill
their commitments towards the second Millennium Development Goal, Universal Primary
Education.

Mustafa Wahbi Al-Tall, “Arar”

Mustafa Wahbi, better known as Arar, was a Jordanian poet, lawyer, teacher, judge, political
agitator and philosopher. Arar was a pioneer of Jordanian patriotism and a spokesman for
the nation’s ideals and aspirations. He was known for his nationalist and revolutionary
oeuvre and his activism in accordance to it. Rebellious patriotism in Arar’s poetry is
inextricably tied to his never-ending Don Juanism. As a lover, obsessed by the nostalgia for
places that had once quenched his thirst for love, Arar created a quite new type of
metaphors and terms of reference to the beloved and to her place in the poet’s dream-
world. Place-related identity terms referring to the poet’s beloved or her close
surroundings. And that helped establish a unique Jordanian literary tradition in the Arabic
language.

Suleiman Mousa
Suleiman Mousa was a Jordanian author and historian. He wrote many books of which most
prominent are “The Biography of Sharif Hussein Bin Ali “, “Jordan in the 1948 War”, “The
Great Arab Revolt”, “History of Jordan in the 20th century”, and was the first and only Arab
author to write about Lawrence of Arabia and show the Arab perspective. His book T.E.
Lawrence: An Arab View was published in 1966 and translated into English, French and
Japanese. It was written after a study that had convinced him that although there were
many books written to praise Lawrence and others written to discredit him, all of them
exaggerated his part in the Arab Revolt and failed to do justice to the Arabs themselves.

Haider Mahmoud
Haider Mahmoud is a prominent Jordanian poet. He was also Jordan’s Ambassador to
Tunisia, and he later held the culture portfolio in the Jordanian government. Mahmoud’s
works were published in several languages including Spanish, Japanese, Korean, French and
Serbian, and his works are taught in the Jordanian curriculum in both the School and
University levels. Mahmoud was granted several Arab and International awards and medals,
including the King Abdullah II Award for Innovation in the Field of Literature (Jordan, 2004),
The Independence Medal of First Order (Jordan, 1991), Medal of the Republic of the
Supreme Order (Tunisia, 1999), Ibn-Khafaja Award for Poetry (Spain, 1986).

Abdul Rahman Munif

Abdul Rahman Munif is one of the most important Arabic novelists of the 20th century. He
is most noted for closely reflecting the political surroundings of his day. His masterwork is
the Cities of Salt quintet that followed the evolution of the Arabian Peninsula as its
traditional Bedouin culture is transformed by the oil boom. The novels create an entire
history of a broad region, evoking comparisons to William Faulkner’s Yoknapatawpha
County. Munif chronicles the economic, social, and psychological effects of the promise of
immeasurable wealth drawn from the deserts of nomad and oasis communities.

In 1946, Jordan became an independent state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of
Transjordan, but was renamed in 1949 to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan after the
country captured the West Bank during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and annexed it until it
was lost to Israel in 1967

Historically know for

Jordan's most famous national park is Wadi Rum, where you can spend the night amid the
silent desert expanse at a simple Bedouin Beit Shar (goat-hair tent) encampment. Amman is
Jordan's capital city, as well as its culinary capital. Lunch lines outside Al-Quds on Rainbow
Street indicate the city's best falafel.