GD & TGD&T Y14.

5M is an international language used on drawings that describe the size, form,

orientation, and location of part features. It is also a design-dimensioning philosophy that encourages
designers to define a part based on how it functions in the final product or assembly. GD&T is an exact
language that enables designers to "say what they mean" on a drawing, thus improving product designs.
Production uses the language to interpret the design intent and to determine the best manufacturing
approach, and inspection looks to the language to determine proper set-up. By providing uniformity in the
drawing specifications and interpretation, GD&T reduces controversy, guesswork, and assumptions
throughout the design - manufacturing - inspection process

.Cost Benefits

I am not aware of any studies demonstrating the cost benefits of GD&T. Confusion, guesswork, rework and
unnecessary geometric specifications are difficult events to estimate as cost charges against an
organization’s profitability. The benefits of using GD&T to specify parts and assemblies is readily evident
when one considers the schedule and cost hits endured when parts and assemblies are remanufactured and
reassembled due to poor tolerance specification. Benefits are also obvious when one contrasts GD&T to
coordinate dimensioning, which has been in use for over 150 years. Some of the advantages that add up to
significant savings in the design to production process are as follows:
The design philosophy of GD&T is that of functional dimensioning, which means that a part is defined in
dimensional sets or, by how it functions in the next assembly or final product. Instead of guessing at the
tolerance, the designer bases the tolerance on part function. When applied properly, this allows the
maximum or correct amount of tolerance to produce the part. When properly applied, functional
dimensioning can increase the amount of allowable tolerance on many components’ dimensions, which
reduces manufacturing costs. With coordinate dimensioning, tolerance zones are not related to functional
requirements. Problems can result when designers assign too tight or loose (arbitrary) tolerances due to a
lack of focus on the functional tolerance actually required.

GD&T allows round tolerance zones which allow for up to 57% more tolerance than square zones when
material modifiers are applied, resulting in more dimensionally-accepted parts. By allowing more tolerance
on parts, the process is more capable of reducing manufacturing costs. By defining tighter tolerances as
determined necessary on selected features, a design may allow better interchangeability resulting in a
mechanical design that is stress free and more dependable.

In addition to tolerance gained from using round zones, under certain conditions, GD&T allows a "Bonus"
tolerance, gained by using the MMC modifier. This allows a hole or boss to have additional tolerance when
it is produced divergent from its maximum material condition. The process is greatly improved because
design can be assured that the part will assemble when the holes and screws are produced at positionals that
are at the extremes of their respective tolerances. In comparison, the tolerance zones in coordinate
tolerancing have fixed limits placing more restrictions on tolerancing and ultimately resulting in more
scraped parts.

GD&T’s datum system communicates clearly on the set-up for inspection. Datum's are theoretical planes,
points, or axis and are simulated by the inspection equipment. Datum features are selected on the basis of
the part function and assembly requirements; they are features that mount and locate the part in its
assembly configuration. In comparison, coordinate dimensioning allows different inspectors and machinists
to choose the datum's resulting in variations in dimensional interpretations and the increased likelihood of
scraped parts.Proper GD&T reduces assembly problems. Sometimes design engineers experiment with fits
at assembly, this is costly and adversely profitability, time to market and ultimately customer satisfaction.

GD&T training will allow mechanical engineers and designers to fully exploit the
concept of functional dimensioning and will allow the application of this standard to
eliminate dimensional, design-induced errors, and reduce time to market.
An afterthought:

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GD&T requires learning, application and practice. Everyone involved with part drawings should be trained
in GD&T so that they can recognize common errors. Unfortunately, many of today’s engineering and
design formal education programs only offer a brief exposure to GD&T, with little if any emphasis on
application.
There are three levels of GD&T: Interpretation, Application and Tolerance Analysis.
The Interpretation class will train on the purposes and objectives of GD&T, the symbols, rules and
terminology. The Applications class includes how to select datum's and solve real-world problems.
Tolerance analysis include using geometric tolerances in stacks to establish part tolerance and analyze
product designs.
Designers, Engineers need all three levels of training. CNC Programmers, Machinist, Inspectors, Quality
Engineers and other process professionals need at least interpretation training and depending on skill level
and job scope, may need application.
Adherence to the principles and standards of ASME Y14.5M will greatly improve overall organization
efficiency. The use these standards to communicate requirements to manufacturing to reduce scrap,
rework ,redesign, and to increase the percentage of usable parts and assemblies. It will simplify inspection
and assembly and will reduce overall product development time.

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Why ?

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GDT) is a method for precisely defining the
geometry of mechanical parts. It introduces tools, which allow mechanical designers,
fabricators, and inspectors to effectively communicate complex geometrical descriptions
which are not otherwise able to be described in a defined language.

Figure 1.1 A good example of why GDT is needed is the automobile

stamped chassis shown in Figure 1.1. The rear quarter
panel must fit snugly in order to allow spot welds and in
this competitive business, cosmetic appearance and noise
abatement are critical. Without GDT, geometric description
of this assembly is difficult if not impossible. Computer
modelling of these complex surfaces continues to increase
the complexity of interface shapes.

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Illustrated in Figure 1.2 is an imprecise sand-cast sewer termination
fitting. Its hole pattern must mate with the corresponding pattern of
the equally imprecise mating pipe. Flatness is also an issue with these
rough-surfaced parts. Inspectors must be able to pass as many parts as
possible without sacrificing fit. Tens of thousands of the parts are
produced. GDT allows fabricators, inspectors, and assemblers to
match covers with equally imprecise pipes.

Figure 1.2

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing is a vast language of which there are many facets. However,
what is commonly used is a small subset of the total. This subset is based on concepts which MUST be
learned in order to progress further. Without a solid understanding of these fundamentals, one cannot gain a
firm grasp of later topics. We will present the most essential (and often misinterpreted) topics in a step-by-
step fashion, starting with a simple two-dimensional case. After the 2D case has been understood, the full
three-dimensional geometry will be described. We also include common areas of confusion and a reference
section, but at this point the primary objective is to explain the fundamentals. Please select "2D DATUMS"
from the menu bar to the left to continue.

History of Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing

Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing symbols have been in use since at least the turn of the century.
GDT was especially important during the Second World War in relation to extremely high volume
production of Liberty Ships, aircraft, and ground vehicles. The automotive industry, with its high volumes,
has also benefited from GDT. The computer industry, in particular mass storage manufacturers, have used
GDT extensively to increase their yields of high-volume and low-margin hard disk drives. However, as
with most engineering and scientific methodologies, GDT was not rigorously established and documented
until later in the twentieth century. The American National Standards Institute publication in 1982 of ANSI
Y14.5M-1982 was a turning point in the rigorous, unambiguous standardization of the methodology.

2D Hole Positioning

Figure 2.6a: Traditional Plus/Minus Tolerancing

Now that we have rigorously defined how we fixture the
part for dimensioning features, we can define where the
hole is. Figure 2.6a shows two dimensions which show
where the hole is with respect to datums A and B.
Plus/minus tolerances are also shown, as is a square
tolerance zone within which the center of the circle must
lie. Although it may seem that we are not using GDT here,
without the GDT datums, the two dimensions shown are
ambiguous.

However, the plus/minus tolerance zone is not clearly

defined since we do not know what is meant by the "center
of the circle". In addition, a square tolerance zone is typically not what is needed for defining the position
of a hole with respect to a mating shaft, as shown in Figure 2.7a.

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 Figure 2.6b
Figure 2.7a
Figure 2.6b illustrates an isolated case where a
square tolerance zone would be appropriate.

Figure 2.7 : GDT of the Same Hole

Figure 2.7 illustrates the equivalent GDT
tolerancing of the hole position. The tolerance
zone within which the center of the circle must lie
is circular rather than rectangular. We will later
learn how the size and position of this circular
zone is defined based upon the symbols shown. In
GDT, the "center of the circle" is defined as the
center of the best-fit circle determined by the
actual hole. Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM) equipment typically uses at least three points on an actual hole to
define the best-fit circle, as illustrated in Figure 2.7b. Figure 2.7c shows
the CMM probe touching the side of the hole for a data point. The CMM
machine of course uses the A and B functional datum planes as its position
and orientation references. A big advantage of GDT is that the circular
tolerance zone contains 57% more area than an equivalent square tolerance
zone. The largest deviation from true position occurs on the diagonals of a
square, and the circle meets this, while providing 40% more possible
deviation along the vertical and horizontal. Therefore, more parts can be
accepted by inspection. With the square tolerance zone, parts that can fit are rejected since typically only
the vertical and horizontal location deviations are checked.

Figure 2.7b : Best Fit Circle Center

Figure 2.7c
The 7.5 and 3.0 dimensions in Figure 2.7 do not have attached tolerances for a reason. They are called
basic dimensions and represent the exact position of the center of the circular tolerance zone within which
the center of the circle must lie. They can be recognized as basic dimensions because they are box framed.
The diameter of the circular tolerance zone comes from the feature control frame which is below the 2.5
hole diameter dimension. The diameter of the tolerance zone in the feature control frame is 0.5 inches. The

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 first symbol in the frame designates the tolerance as a positional tolerance.
The -A- and -B- are the GDT datums to which the zone refers. For a two
dimensional problem, the importance of -A- and -B- is not apparent, but we
will see in the 3D example how they come into play. For now, let us notice
that the tolerance zone location is located via -A- and -B-. The ±0.2
tolerance on the 2.5 hole diameter allows the diameter of the hole to vary
from 2.3 to 2.7, but the center of the hole must still lie within the circular
tolerance zone described above. The ± 0.2 tolerance will be discussed further
under bonus tolerancing.

Figure 2.8
There is another way in which the circular tolerance zone for the hole can be interpreted. Figure 2.8 shows
this tolerance zone as being the annular "racetrack" formed by two circles centered at 7.5, 3.0, nominally
2.5 in diameter, and ±.125 above and below 2.5 in diameter. If the actual hole profile is within this
"racetrack", it is very similar to its center being within the 0.5 diameter circular tolerance zone. This
interpretation of hole positional tolerances is common and probably originated before CMM machines
allowed finding the center of the best fit circle. This interpretation lends itself to inspection with calipers,
gauge pins, and the like. However, in cases where extreme precision and the utmost certainty of geometry
are required, the true GDT (ANSI Y14.5) definition should be used.

Now that we have observed how GDT can clearly define hole position, let us move on to bonus tolerancing.
If you would like to skip bonus tolerancing for now and move on to the 3D case of what we have discussed,
see 3D Datums.

2D Shaft Bonus Tolerance

GDT dimensioning of holes (and shafts) provides a powerful method for increasing inspection yield
without trial and error fitting or binning. This method is what is known as bonus tolerancing. Figure 2.9
illustrates the possible size variation of the hole from the 2D Hole section. It does not, however, show the
variation in position of the hole that is shown in Figure 2.10, for a nominal hole size.

Figure 2.9(left) and Figure 2.10

Combining the two types of variation, we get Figure 2.11, which shows the quite large
envelope which results. If the hole becomes larger, why not widen the tolerance on the
hole position since the mating part now has a larger target ? This is what bonus
tolerancing provides.

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 Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12 is the same hole that we have been discussing, but with
an added symbol in the feature control frame. The M with a circle
around it stands for Maximum Material Condition (MMC). For a
hole, this is the smallest possible size, and for a shaft, it is the
largest. In other words, for mating holes and shafts, MMC is the
tolerance condition where fit is most difficult.

If the hole increases in size from MMC, leeway in the position of

the hole becomes available. This addition to the positional
tolerance zone diameter is defined as the amount that the hole
diameter increases over MMC.

Figure 2.12
If no MMC symbol is present, the tolerance is assumed to
apply at Regardless of Feature Size (RFS) and there is no
bonus tolerance. The Least Material Condition (LMC) also
exists, symbolized by a circled L, but we have not found it
to be used very often.

For a continuation of this discussion concerning virtual

condition, please see 2D Bon Tol Example.

2D Virtual Condition

The Virtual Condition of a feature is a concept used to describe the worst-case envelope which either of two
features must lie within in order to mate acceptably. For a shaft that fits into a hole, the shaft virtual
condition must be smaller than the hole virtual condition.

For an external feature of size, such as a shaft, the virtual condition is equal to the size at MMC plus the
size of the tolerance zone. For the shaft in Figure VC1.1, the diameter of the virtual condition is the
diameter of the MMC shaft plus the diameter of the position tolerance zone.
Figure VC1.1

For an internal feature of size, such as a hole, the virtual condition is equal to the size at MMC minus the

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size of the tolerance zone. For the hole in Figure VC1.2, the diameter of the virtual condition is the
diameter of the MMC hole minus the diameter of the position tolerance zone.
Figure VC1.2

Figure VC1.3 shows the shaft and hole virtual conditions superimposed. Since the shaft virtual condition is
smaller than the hole virtual condition, the two parts will always mate.
Figure VC1.3

In summary, the way to calculate virtual condition (VC) for a shaft and hole is:
SHAFT VC = MMC diameter + Position Tolerance Zone Diameter
HOLE VC = MMC diameter - Position Tolerance Zone Diameter

Virtual condition is extremely useful in the design of functional gauges. A functional gauge made to virtual
condition will ensure that a part will always mate with its counterpart. For a description of how a real-world
functional gauge works, please see 3D Functional Gauge. To start from scratch in 3D, go to 3D Datums.

Symbol Glossary

What follows is a short summary of feature control symbols used in GDT. As was mentioned in the
introduction, this is not intended to be an exhaustive presentation of GDT, but rather a concise, clear
explanation of GDT's most important yet often misunderstood points. Therefore, we do not explain in detail
all of the symbols listed below.

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In the "Type of Feature" column, "Individual" means that this type of tolerance does not need to be referred
to a datum. Individual GDT tolerances are the easiest to understand for a beginning GDT user. "Related"
designates a type of tolerance that must be referred to a datum. "Individual or Related" can be of either
type, depending on the situation.

SYMBOL VERBAL TYPE of TYPE of NOTES

DESCRIPTION TOLERANCE FEATURE

Position Location Related Commonly used.

Concentricity Location Related Difficult to inspect.

Circular Runout Runout Related

Includes Circular
Total Runout Runout Related
Runout

Perpendicularity Orientation Related

Parallelism Orientation Related

Angularity Orientation Related

Individual or
Profile of a Surface Profile
Related

Individual or
Profile of a Line Profile
Related

Flatness Form Individual

Straightness Form Individual

Roundness or
Form Individual
Circularity

Cylindricity Form Individual

Parallelism vs. Flatness

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One common area of confusion within GDT is between parallelism and flatness. With, parallelism, a
reference is made to a datum plane, while flatness is independent of a datum. Figure PF1.1 shows a block
on a surface plate whose three points of contact define the -A- datum plane. As specified, the opposite face
of the block must lie within two planes which straddle a plane parallel to and 2.0 from -A- and .125 to
either side of it.

Figure PF1.1

Figure PF1.2 shows a flatness specification on the same surface. No datum plane is involved. A "best fit"
plane (3 point contact) defines the mid-plane, and all surface points must lie between two planes which are
parallel to this plane, and .125 to either side of it.

Figure PF1.2

Cylindrical Specifications

One common area of confusion within GDT is the differences between the various ways of specifying how
true a cylindrical surface or surface of revolution is: roundness, cylindricity, concentricity, circular runout,
and total runout. Let us start with roundness. As shown in Figure CS1, roundness applies to individual
circular cross sections of a surface of revolution or of a sphere.

Figure CS1 : ROUNDNESS

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Cylindricity, on the other hand, applies to all cross-sections of a cylindrical surface simultaneously. The
surface must lie between the two cylindrical surface which bound the tolerance zone and are determined by
a best-fit nominal cylinder. Figure CS2 illustrates cylindricity.

Figure CS2 : CYLINDRICITY applies to all cross-sectional elements simultaneously.

It is a common misconception that roundness and cylindricity can be checked by taking diametral
measurements (as with a micrometer) or by using an indicator and vee block. A diametral measurement
does just what the words imply; it measures the diameter. It does not check the shape of the surface which
is what roundness and cylindricity control. Since the roundness or cylindricity tolerance is a radial distance
between concentric boundaries, a radial method of checking the surface is necessary. However, rotating a
part between centers is not an acceptable method since it relates the part surface to an axis, which
technically is a check of another geometric tolerance called runout.

To truly check for the roundness or cylindricity of a surface without regard to the axis of the part, the part
must be rotated about the ultra-precision spindle of a specialized roundness measuring machine. A probe
contacts the surface and transcribes an enlarged profile of the surface onto a polar graph. The profile is then
checked against a clear overlay of concentric circles to determine if it falls within the allowable tolerance
zone.

Concentricity is the condition in which the axes of all cross-sectional elements of a surface of revolution
are common to the axis of a datum feature. Because the location of the datum axis is difficult to find, it is
easier to inspect for cylindricity or runout.

Figure CS3 : CONCENTRICITY is based upon the datum axis so that it is difficult to ascertain.

Runout refers to the result of placing a solid of revolution on a spindle such as a lathe, and rotating the part
about its central axis while measuring with a dial indicator its surface deviation from perfect roundness.

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With circular runout, the dial indicator is not moved along the direction of the axis of the part. Circular
runout is therefore applied independently at each station along the length of the part as the part is rotated
through 360 degrees.

Figure CS4 : CIRCULAR RUNOUT applies to each cross section individually.

Total runout involves moving the dial indicator along the length of the part while the part is rotated, so that
it controls the cumulative variations of circularity, cylindricity, straightness, coaxiality, angularity, taper,
and profile.

Figure CS5 : TOTAL RUNOUT applies to all cross sections simultaneously.

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