I I

LINEAR
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
TIME DOMAIN, PHASOR,
AND LAPLACE
TRANSFORM APPROACHES
SECOND EDITION

Raymond A. DeCarlo
Purdue University

Pen-Min Lin
Purdue University

New York Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
2001
Contents

Preface xiii

Chapter 1
1. Role and Importance of Circuits in
Engineering
2. Fields, Charge, and Current
Fields, 5 Charge, 5 Current, 6
3. Voltage
4. Energy Conversion in an Electric
Circuit
5. Relationships among Voltage, Current,
Power, and Energy
Power and Energy for Direct Voltages and
Currents, 17 Non-DC Power and Energy
Calculations, 20
6. Ideal Voltage and Current Sources
7. Resistance, Ohm's Law, and Power
3 (a Reprise)
5 8. Additional Concepts: Characteristic,
Memoryless, Model, and Lumped
11 V-I Characteristic ofConstant Voltage and
Current Sources, 31 Notion ofa
15 Memoryless Device, 32 Notion of Model,
33 Frequency, Wavelength, and the
17 Notion ofa Lumped Circuit Element, 33
Summary
Terms and Concepts
Problems
22

Chapter 2 KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT AND VOLTAGE LAWS AND SERIES-PARALLEL

RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
Introduction 44 Series-Parallel Interconnections
Terminology: Parallel, Series, Dependent Sources Revisited
Node, Branch, and so on 44 Model for a Nonideal Battery and
Kirchhoff's Current Law 46 Battery Capacity
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law 49 10. Nonideal Sources
Equivalent Resistance, Series Summary
Resistances, and Voltage Division 53 Terms and Concepts
Parallel Resistances and Current Division 55 Problems

Chapter 3 NODAL AND LOOP ANALYSES

I • Introduction, Review, and Terminology 88 *7. Some Theoretical Foundations
2. Concepts of Nodal and Loop Analysis 89 Planar and Nonplanar Circuit Graphs,
3. Nodal Analysis I: Grounded Voltage 116 Meshes and Loops for Nonplanar
Sources 90 Circuits, 116 Number of Independent
4. Nodal Analysis II: Floating Voltage KCL and KVL Equations, 118
Sources 98 Summary
5. Loop Analysis 102 Terms and Concepts
*6. Modified Nodal Analysis 111 Problems

Chapter 4 THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

1. Introduction 134 Design Choicesfor the General Summing
2. The Ideal Operational Amplifier 135 Circuit, 142 Derivation
3. Design of General Summing ofOp Amp Input-Output Characteristic,
Amplifiers 142 145
 CONTENTS
viii
4. Saturation and the Active Region of the Binary-Weighted Summing Circuit, 152
Op Amp 146 Summary 154
5. Op Amp Circuit for Digital-to-Analog Terms and Concepts 154
Conversion 151 Problems 155
Elements ofA/D and D/A Conversion, 151

Chapter 5 LINEARITY, SUPERPOSITION, AND SOURCE TRANSFORMATIONS 166

1. Introduction 167 *5. Modified Superposition Analysis 188

2. Linearity 168 Summary 192
3. Superposition and Proportionality 175 Terms and Concepts 193
4. Source Transformations 181 Problems 193

Chapter 6 THEVENIN, NORTON, AND M A X I M U M POWER TRANSFER THEOREMS 200

1. Introduction 201 Circuits from Measured Data 218

2. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Theoretical Considerations:
Circuits for Passive Networks 202 Pathological Cases and a Proof 220
3. Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 224
Circuits for Active Networks 208 Summary 230
4. Thevenin and Norton Equivalents for Terms and Concepts 230
Op Amp Circuits 214 Problems 231
Thevenin and Norton Equivalent

Chapter 7 INDUCTORS, CAPACITORS, AND DUALITY 242

1. Introduction 244 Parallel, 263 Series-Parallel Inductor

2. The Inductor 244 Combinations, 264 Capacitors in Series,
Some Physics, 244 Definition and Basic 265 Capacitors in Parallel, 266
Examples, 246 Series-Parallel Capacitor Combinations,
3. The Capacitor 254 267
Definitions and Properties, 254 Smoothing Property of a Capacitor in a
Relationship of Charge to Capacitor Voltage Power Supply 267
and Current, 257 Principle of The Duality Principle 269
Conservation of Charge, 257 Energy Basic Relationship ofDual Circuits, 269
Storage in a Capacitor, 259 Capacitance Constructing the Dual N* of a Planar
and Dielectrics, 261 Circuit N, 271
4. Series and Parallel Inductors and Summary 275
Capacitors 261 Terms and Concepts 276
Inductors in Series, 261 Inductors in Problems 276

Chapter 8 FIRST-ORDER RL AND RC CIRCUITS 286

1. Introduction 288 Response Classifications 308

2. Some Mathematical Preliminaries 289 Further Points of Analysis and Theory 309
3. Source-Free or Zero-Input Response 291 First-Order RC Op Amp Circuits 313
4. DC or Step Response of First-Order Summary 317
Circuits 298 Terms and Concepts 318
5. Superposition and Linearity 305 Problems 318
CONTENTS

Chapter 9 SECOND-ORDER LINEAR CIRCUITS

:UITS 330
1. Introduction 332 4. Second-Order Linear Networks with
2. Discharging a Capacitor Through an Constant Inputs 348
Inductor 333 *5. Formulation of a Single Second-Order
3. Source-Free Second-Order Linear Differential Equation 356
Networks 336 Writing the State Equations, 356
Development of Differential Equation Reducing the State Equations to a Single
Models for Series and Parallel RLC Circuits, Second-Order Differential Equation, 358
336 Solution ofthe General Second-Order 6. Oscillator Application 362
Differential Equation Model, 337 Summary 366
Response Calculation of Parallel and Series Terms and Concepts 366
RLC Circuits, 342 Application to Selected Problems 367
Second-Order Circuits, 345

Chapter 10 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE ANALYSIS BY PHASOR METHODS 378

1. Introduction 380 8. Steady-State Circuit Analysis Using
2. Brief Review of Comp lex Numbers 382 Phasors 402
3. Naive Technique for Computing the 9. Phasor Diagram 405
Sinusoidal Steady State 387 10. Introduction to the Notion of Frequency
4. Complex Exponential Forcing Functions Response 408
in Sinusoidal Steady-State Computation 389 11. Nodal Analysis of a Pressure-Sensing
5. Phasor Representations of Sinusoidal Device 414
Signals 391 Summary 417
6. Elementary Impedance Concepts: Phasor Terms and Concepts 418
Relationships for Rs, Ls, and Cs 393 Problems 418
7. Phasor Impedance and Admittance 397

Chapter 11 SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE POWER CALCULATIONS 432

1. Introduction 433 the Principle of Conservation of Power, 446

2. Instantaneous and Average Power 434
3. Effective Value of a Signal and Average 6. Power Factor and Power Factor
Power 437 Correction 448
4. Complex Power and its Components: 7. Maximum Power Transfer in the
Average, Reactive, and Apparent Power 441 Sinusoidal Steady State 455
5. Conservation of Power in the Sinusoidal Summary 458
Steady State 444 Terms and Concepts 459
Basics and Examples, 444 Justification of Problems 459

Chapter 12 BALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS 466

1. Introduction 467 4. Analysis of Balanced Three-Phase

2. Ideal Three-Phase Voltage Sources and Circuits 478
Some Economical Aspects of Electric Summary 485
Power Transmission 468 Terms and Concepts 486
3. Circuit Models for Practical Three-Phase Problems 486
Voltage Sources 473
 CONTENTS

Chapter 13 LAPLACE TRANSFORM ANALYSIS, 1 : BASICS 492

1. Introduction 493 Repeated Poles, 511 Partial Fraction
2. Review and Deficiencies of Expansions: Distinct Complex Poles, 513
"Second-Order" Time Domain Methods 494 Elementary Properties and Examples 516
3. Overview of Laplace Transform Analysis 498 Solution of Integrodifferential Equations
4. Basic Signals 499 by the Laplace Transform 526
5. The One-Sided Laplace Transform 502 Summary 530
6. The Inverse Laplace Transform 508 Terms and Concepts 530
Partial Fraction Expansions: Distinct Poles, Problems 531
509 Partial Fraction Expansions:

Chapter 14 LAPLACE TRANSFORM ANALYSIS, 2: CIRCUIT APPLICATIONS 540

1. Introduction 542 Switched Capacitor Circuits and

2. Notions of Impedance and Admittance 542 Conservation of Charge 572
3. Manipulation of Impedance and Design of General Summing Integrators 578
Admittance 545 Design Choicesfor the General Summing
4. Notion of Transfer Function 550 Circuit of Figure 14.52, 578 Derivation of
5. Equivalent Circuits for Inductors and Op Amp Input-Output Characteristic, 580
Capacitors 554 Summary 581
6. Nodal and Loop Analyses in the Terms and Concepts 581
s-Domain 561 Problems 582
7. Switching in RLC Circuits 567

Chapter 15 LAPLACE TRANSFORM ANALYSIS, 3: TRANSFER FUNCTION APPLICATIONS 596

1. Introduction 598 8. BodePlots 626
2. Poles, Zeros, and the s -Plane 598 9. Frequency Characteristics and Bode
3. Classification of Responses 604 Plots of Some Op Amp Circuits 632
4. Computation of the Sinusoidal 10. Transfer Function Analysis of a DC
Steady-State Response for Stable Motor 636
Networks and Systems 611 Summary 639
5. Frequency Response 616 Terms and Concepts 639
6. Impulse and Step Responses 620 Problems 640
7. Initial- and Final-Value Theorems 623

Chapter 16 TIME D O M A I N CIRCUIT RESPONSE COMPUTATIONS:

THE CONVOLUTION METHOD 654
1. Introduction 655 5. Circuit Response Computations Using
2. Definition, Basic Properties, and Simple Convolution 665
Examples 657 6. Convolution Properties Revisited 669
3. Convolution and Laplace Transforms 661 7. Graphical Convolution and Circuit
4. Time Domain Derivation of the Response Computation 671
Convolution Integral for Linear 8. Convolution Algebra 675
Time-Invariant Circuits 662 Summary 680
Rectangular Approximations to Signals, Terms and Concepts 680
662 Computation of Response for Linear Problems 681
Time-Invariant Systems, 663
CONTENTS XI

Chapter 17 RESONANT AND BANDPASS CIRCUITS

CIRCUITS 690

1. Introduction 692 off the Origin 714

2. Resonant Frequency of Simple Circuits 7. Bandpass Transfer Function with One
with Applications 693 Pair of Complex Poles and No Finite Zero
3. Frequency Response of a Parallel RLC or Two Finite Zeros 716
Circuit 699 8. Magnitude Scaling and Frequency
4 General Structure of the Bandpass Scaling 720
Transfer Function with One Pair of 9. Practical Considerations in Tuned
Complex Poles 707 Circuits 729
5. Bandpass Transfer Function with One Quality Factor of Components, 729
Pair of Complex Poles and a Single Zero Summary 738
at the Origin 708 Terms and Concepts 738
6. Bandpass Transfer Function with One Problems 739
Pair of Complex Poles and a Single Zero

Chapter 18 MAGNETICALLY COUPLED CIRCUITS AND TRANSFORMERS 750

1. Introduction 752 Cakulation of Stored Energy, 767 Upper

2. Mutual Inductance and the Dot Boundfor M and the Coefficient of
Convention 752 Coupling, 768
3. Differential Equation, Laplace 6. Ideal Transformer as a Circuit Element
Transform, and Phasor Models of and Applications 770
Coupled Inductors 756 7. Coupled Inductors Modeled with an
4. Applications: Automobile Ignition and Ideal Transformer 778
RF Amplifier 761 *8. Models for Practical Transformers 782
5. Coefficient of Coupling and Energy Summary 784
Cakulation 766 Terms and Concepts 785
Justification that Mn = M%\ = M, 766 Problems 785

Chapter 19 Two-PORTS 798

1. Introduction 800 6. Impedance and Gain Calculations of

2. One-Port Networks 801 Terminated Two-Ports Modeled by
Basic Impedance Calculations, 801 z-Parameters 817
Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits, Input and Output Impedance Calculations,
803 General One-Port Analysis, 806 817 Gain Calculations, 817
3. Two-Port Admittance Parameters 807 7. Hybrid Parameters 820
Two-Dependent Source Equivalent Circuit, Computation ofh-Parameters, 822
810 General Relations to z- and y-Parameters,
4. Admittance Parameter Analysis of 824 Impedance and Gain Calculations,
Terminated Two-Ports 810 826
Input and Output Admittance Calculations, 8. Generalized Two-Port Parameters 827
811 Gain Calculations, 812 9. Transmission Parameters 827
5. Two-Port Impedance Parameters 813 10. Reciprocity 831
Relationship to y'-Parameters, 815 Summary 836
Two-Dependent Source Equivalent Circuit, Terms and Concepts 836
816 Problems 837
xii CONTENTS

Chapter20 ANALYSIS OF INTERCONNECTED TWO-PORTS 850

1. Introduction 851 Three-Terminal Network 863
2. Parallel, Series, and Cascade Connections Summary 868
of Two-Ports 852 Terms and Concepts 869
3. Indefinite Admittance Matrix of a Problems 869

Chapter21 PRINCIPLES OF BASIC FILTERING 878

1. Introduction and Basic Terminology 880 Basic Active Realization of Butterworth
Types of Filtering, 880 Basic Terminology, Transfer Functions 896
881 Sallen and Key Active Low-Pass Filter, 897
2. Low-Pass Filter Basics 881 Input Attenuation and Gain
3. Butterworth Low-Pass Transfer Enhancement for Active Circuit Design 899
Characteristic 885 Input Attenuation, 899 Gain
Phase 1: Development ofthe Butterworth Enhancement, 900
Magnitude Response, 886 Phase 2: Basic High-Pass Filter Design with
Development ofthe Butterworth Transfer Passive Realization 901
Function, 888 Properties of the Pole-Zero Movement under the LP to
Butterworth Loss Function, 890 HP Transformation 904
4. Computation of Butterworth Loss 10. Active Realization of High-Pass Filters 905
Functions from Brickwall Specifications 891 Summary 907
5. Basic Passive Realization of Butterworth Terms and Concepts 907
Transfer Functions 894 Problems 908

Chapter22 FOURIER SERIES WITH APPLICATIONS TO ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 914

1. Introduction 916 Series Representation 927
2. Fourier Series: Trigonometrie and 4. Harmonie Distortion in an Amplifier 935
Exponential Forms 918 *5. Ripple Factor in DC Power Supplies 940
Two Properties ofthe Fourier Series, 921 Summary 949
*Convergence ofthe Fourier Series, 925 Terms and Concepts 949
3. Additional Properties and Problems 950
Computational Shortcuts for the Fourier

APPENDICES
Appendix AI Matrices 954 Appendix A3 Use of SPICE in Linear
Appendix A2 Solving Circuit Problems Circuits 976
with MATLAB: Chapters 1 to 12 961

Index 1001