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3.

Laws Governing Motion


Motion is all around us—people walk, clouds left to themselves, will continue to move in a straight
move, rain falls, and water flows. Things are moving line without changing speed—uniform motion. At first
wherever we look, and motion seems to be associated this seems contrary to our experience. Moving objects
with all the changes we observe. Understanding motion always seem to slow down and stop if nothing is done
is an important starting point in understanding the to keep them moving. Is this not a violation of this
world. Newton helped us to understand motion in terms statement of the law?
of the three laws he published in 1687. Although his Our problem is that the objects with which we deal
laws of motion appear relatively simple, his perspective are not free. Friction acts on them and, if it is not
is not intuitively obvious and requires a retraining of the opposed by other forces, “compels” these objects to
way we think. We will now describe these laws of change from their state of uniform motion. We can test
motion and try to understand their meaning, illustrating the validity of the First Law, however, by considering the
them with common experience, but common experience motion of objects in situations where friction is greatly
seen in a new way. reduced. One can easily imagine, for example, that an
ice skater could glide on and on without ever slowing
The First Law of Motion down if friction could be eliminated totally (Fig. 3.1).

Before dealing with all kinds of motion, we must


first ask: How do objects move if they are left alone?
What is the “natural” motion of free objects? Only
when we know the answers to these questions do we
know what remains to be explained. If free objects
move in a particular way, objects that move in some
other way are not free and their motions must be
explained by another law. The First Law of Motion
correctly describes the motion of free objects:

Every object continues in its state of rest, or of


uniform motion in a straight line with unchang-
ing speed, unless compelled to do otherwise by
forces acting upon it.

It seems obvious that an object at rest remains at


rest if it is left alone, yet the consequence can some-
times be startling. A magician depends on this law
when he pulls the tablecloth from a table, leaving the
dinner service undisturbed. The plates and goblets are Figure 3.1. An ice skater could go on forever without
at rest and remain at rest unless the tablecloth “com- effort if friction were not present.
pels” them to do otherwise.
A less entertaining manifestation of the law occurs Those who drive on icy roads are acutely aware of the
when a stopped car with passengers is struck from consequences of the law. It is a frightening experience to
behind. The passengers’ heads momentarily remain at approach an intersection, apply the brakes because of a red
rest while the car and the rest of their bodies are “com- light, and then proceed through without slowing down.
pelled” to move forward by the force of the impact. Turning is also a problem because, without friction, the car
This results in stretching and bone dislocation known as continues in a straight line no matter how the wheels are
whiplash injury. turned. After two or three such experiences, one is easily
This First Law also states that moving objects, if convinced that the First Law of Motion is valid.

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Even so, the consequences of the law still catch us riding suddenly stops. The passenger keeps moving in
unaware. A common auto injury occurs when a passen- accordance with the First Law of Motion (Figure 3.2).
ger strikes the windshield when the car in which he is A final example suggests another consequence of
the law. A car makes a left turn at modest speed. A
package next to the driver slides across the seat, away
from the center of the turn, and continues its
straight-line motion in accordance with the First Law of
Motion, while the car turns under it (Fig. 3.3).
Incidentally, none of these examples “proves” that
Figure 3.2. Both drivers lose their heads in a rear-end the First Law of Motion is valid, but all suggest that it
collision. Why? might be. Considering other consequences of the law
seems reasonable. As we gain additional experience we
gain increasing confidence in the validity of the law.

Acceleration

Uniform motion in a straight line without changing


speed is the “natural” motion of free objects. Any object
that is not in uniform motion is said to be accelerating.
An object accelerates if its speed changes, either to
increase or decrease, or if its direction changes. It is
sometimes useful to assign specific words to describe
some simple types of acceleration. Deceleration, for
example, denotes a decrease in speed whereas a direc-
tion change is properly designated as a centripetal (cen-
ter-seeking) acceleration. Any change from uniform
Figure 3.3. Why does the passenger feel “thrown” to
motion, however, is an acceleration (Fig. 3.4 and 3.5).
the outside of a turn?

Figure 3.4. Successive pictures, taken at equal time intervals, of a car in four different kinds of motion. Why do we
say that the car is accelerating in c and d but not in a and b?

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Figure 3.5. A coin rests on a moving turntable. How Figure 3.7. The puck slides in a circle on an air-hock-
do you know it is accelerating? ey table without friction. In what direction is the force
exerted on the puck by the string? (Hint: Have you
Acceleration may be defined more precisely as the ever seen a string that could push on anything?)
rate at which speed or direction is changing. The accel-
eration of a car might be designated properly as 5 The strength of forces is measured in pounds (lb)
mi/hr/sec. This car would increase its speed from 30 to in the English system of units and newtons (N) in the
50 mi/hr in 4 sec. It would have the same amount of metric system. The amount of acceleration produced by
acceleration if its speed increased from 10 to 30 mi/hr in a particular force is determined partly by its strength.
the same amount of time. If it slowed from 50 to 40 Stronger forces produce greater accelerations. If a par-
mi/hr in 2 sec the acceleration would be 25 mi/hr/sec; ticular force causes an object to accelerate from 20 to 30
the negative sign denotes deceleration. mi/hr in 10 sec, a force twice as strong would cause the
same change in half the time. A force half as strong
Force would take 20 sec to produce the same effect.
Most objects we deal with are influenced by more
Your intuitive understanding of force is probably than one force. These forces may oppose each other so
adequate for our present purposes. Force is simply a that the resulting acceleration is reduced, or they may
push or pull exerted on one object by another. A more act in the same direction so that the acceleration is
sophisticated definition of force is implied by the First greater than for either one by itself. The sum of all the
Law of Motion: force is anything that causes accelera- forces acting on an object is called the net force or
tion. All accelerations are caused by forces. Forces are resultant force. The strength and direction of the net
acting whenever an object moves faster, moves slower, force determine the acceleration of the object.
changes direction, or experiences any combination of Forces cannot be summed like ordinary numbers,
speed and direction change. however. Forces have both a magnitude (strength) and a
The kind of acceleration caused by a particular direction. Such quantities, called vectors, can be repre-
force depends on the direction of the force. If a force sented by an arrow whose length has been scaled to rep-
pushes on an object in the same direction as its motion, resent the magnitude and whose direction is that of the
the object speeds up. The object slows down if the force pointed arrow. Two vectors can be added by forming a
opposes its motion (Fig. 3.6). Lateral forces cause parallelogram with the two properly scaled and oriented
change in direction with the object turning toward the vectors forming the adjacent sides. The diagonal of the
direction of the force (Fig. 3.7). parallelogram is the resultant force (sum of the two) and
will have both the proper length and direction.

Mass

Not all objects experience the same acceleration


when acted upon by similar forces. An ordinary car, for
example, might be able to provide significant acceleration
to a small empty trailer but considerably less when the
trailer is full. If a truck is loaded, the time and distance
required for a safe stop increases significantly (Fig. 3.9).
The property of objects that determines how much
they accelerate in response to applied forces is called
mass. If mass is large, acceleration will be less than if
mass were smaller. The smaller the mass, the greater the
Figure 3.6. Both pitcher and catcher exert forces that accel- acceleration.
erate the baseball. In which direction is each force applied?

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To be useful, the concept of mass must be made
quantitative. We want to know, for example, whether a
sack of potatoes has a mass of one kilogram or two kilo-
grams. Quantities of mass are defined by comparison to
some arbitrarily defined standard. The standard kilo-
gram is decreed to be the mass of a piece of platinum-
iridium which is kept under the watchful care of the
Bureau Internationals des Poids et Measures at Sevres
near Paris. If you want to know whether you have one
kilogram of potatoes, you must directly or indirectly
compare the mass of your potatoes with the mass of this
piece of metal.
To make this process practical, copies of the stan-
dard kilogram are supplied to the bureaus of standards of
the various nations. They, in turn, make copies—-some
of which are split in halves, quarters, etc. You may have
seen a box of “weights” in a chemistry laboratory which
is the result of this process. One way to compare your
Figure 3.8. Two vectors, A and B, are added to give the potatoes to the standard mass is to place potatoes and
resultant, C. What is the resultant of D and E? standard mass on opposite sides of a balance (scales) and
let gravity serve as a standard force. Put your potatoes
Mass does not depend on location. A particular on one side and keep adding standard masses to the other
force causes the same amount of acceleration no matter until balance is achieved. Now add up the standard
where the object is located: near the earth, in interstel- masses you have used and this is equal to the mass of the
lar space, or anyplace else (Fig. 3.10). If the same potatoes. You have made your comparison (indirectly)
object experiences different accelerations at different with the standard kilogram near Paris.
places, it is because the forces acting on it are different, Length and time must also be given quantitative
not because its mass has changed. meaning by comparison to standards. For many years

Figure 3.9. The same force applied to different objects produces different accelerations. Which of these trucks is
empty? Which has the greater mass?

SPACE

EARTH

MOON

Figure 3.10. A rocket (or any other object) is just as hard to accelerate no matter where it is. Why?

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the standard meter was a long bar of metal kept along- The Third Law of Motion
side the standard kilogram. The second was defined as
some fraction of the day. Today we have more precise Forces act on all objects. To understand objects’
standards of time and distance which are based on cer- motion, or lack of motion, we must consider where
tain characteristics of atoms. The equations we present forces come from, in what situations they occur, and
in this book are usually presented in a form which what determines their strength and direction.
requires that a certain consistent set of units be adopted Otherwise, we can neither explain nor predict motion.
when using the equation. The metric system uses The first important observation about forces is that
meters for length, seconds for time, and kilograms for they occur only when two things interact with each
mass; the English system uses feet for length, seconds other. Nothing can exert a force on itself. For example,
for time, and slugs for mass. (While almost all civilized the wheels of a car touch the road. If the interactions
nations have adopted the metric system, the United between drive wheels and road do not occur, perhaps
States remains an official user of the foot-pound-second because of ice on the road, there is no force and the car
system. This will almost surely change because it does not accelerate. A boat propeller touches the water;
works to our disadvantage in world trade.) an airplane propeller, the air. The forces that accelerate
a rocket result from the contact between the rocket itself
The Second Law of Motion and the fuel that burns inside. No object or system that
can exert a net force on itself has ever been found or
Perhaps briefly summarizing what we know about invented. Forces occur only when two objects are asso-
motion so far will help: ciated with each other, the most common association
being actual contact.
1. If an object is left to itself, it will remain at rest The next important observation is that two forces
or move with its initial uniform motion. act in every interaction, one on each of the interacting
2. Forces cause objects to accelerate. The stronger objects. In some cases, the two forces are both appar-
the net force, the greater the acceleration. ent. As a man steps from a small rowboat to a dock, he
3. Accelerations are less if mass is larger. is accelerated toward the dock and the boat accelerates
4. Acceleration is in the same direction as the net in the opposite direction. A rifle recoils (accelerates)
applied force (forward, backward, sideways, or whenever a bullet is fired.
some combination of these). Sometimes, however, the second force is less obvi-
ous and we may not recognize its presence. When you
The second, third, and fourth of these statements start to walk, for example, the force that accelerates you
constitute the Second Law of Motion. In addition, the comes from the interaction between your foot and the
law specifies the exact relationship between the mass of floor. You push backward on the floor (using your leg
an object, the strength of the net force applied to it, and muscles), the floor pushes forward on you, and you
the amount of acceleration caused by the force. The accelerate in the direction of this force exerted on your
relationship is foot by the floor.
The forward force on your foot in this example is
obvious. It causes your foot and its attachments to
acceleration 5 net force
mass accelerate. The backward force is not quite so apparent.
or, equivalently, Nothing seems to accelerate in that direction. We usu-
ally do not notice that the floor is rigidly attached to the
earth, and so its effective mass is quite large. The floor
net force 5 mass 3 acceleration. is, in fact, accelerated backward, but the amount of
acceleration is immeasurably small because of the
With the First and Second Laws of Motion, you floor’s large mass. The presence of this backward force
can begin to study the motion of anything you observe. would easily be revealed if the floor were covered with
Remember, the important question is not why an object marbles. Their backward acceleration as you walked on
keeps moving but why its motion changes. This ques- them would make the backward force readily apparent.
tion directs our attention to a search for forces and their By now you should have noticed that the two forces
causes. An understanding of the forces enables us to that interacting objects exert on each other always act in
determine if the accelerations we observe are consistent opposite directions. When a man steps from a rowboat, he
with the forces and with the object’s mass. If they are, is accelerated one way while the boat moves in the oppo-
we can go on to other interesting problems; if not, we site direction. A bullet is fired in a particular direction,
have more to learn. and the gun recoils oppositely. You push backward on the
floor and the floor pushes forward on you. The two forces
in every interaction are always oppositely directed.

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All forces result from interactions between pairs
of objects, each object exerting a force on the
other. The two resulting forces have the same
strength and act in exactly opposite directions.

As you can see, the Third Law of Motion is a rule


about forces. It is a law of “motion” only to the extent
that forces and motion are related through the Second
Law of Motion. Nevertheless, the law seems to be
obeyed by all the forces in nature that can be studied in
detail. There are apparently no exceptions.
Notice that the Third Law does not tell everything
about forces. It gives no information about how strong
the forces will be for any given interaction. This infor-
mation is expressed by force laws that describe the
kinds of interactions that occur in nature and the result-
ing forces. These are described in the next chapter.

Applications

Figure 3.11. Identify the interaction, the two resulting The First Law of Motion can be used to
forces, and the accelerations that are produced when a “explain” auto whiplash and windshield injury, the
person kicks a rock. sensation of being thrown outward during a turn, the
almost effortless motion of an ice skater, and other
It can be shown by careful measurements that the common experiences.
two forces in any interaction have the same strength—a The Second Law of Motion can be used to
rule always obeyed by nature. For example, if you “explain” the nearly circular motion of the planets, why
forcefully kick a stone, your toe receives the benefit of sliding objects slow down, why it is hard to stop or turn
a force that has the same bone-breaking strength. If you on slick roads, the behavior of electrons in a TV tube,
kick more gently, the force on your toe is also more gen- the operation of electric and gasoline motors, why it is
tle by exactly the same amount (Fig. 3.11). easier to accelerate a motorcycle than a truck, and
You can probably imagine how this rule might be much, much more. Indeed, every mechanical device
tested. Arrange for two objects, whose masses you know involving internal or external motion is based on the
from another experiment, to interact with each other; Second Law.
measure the accelerations caused by the forces of inter- The Third Law of Motion can be used to “explain”
action; and use the Second Law of Motion to calculate the operation of a rocket engine, the “kick” of a rifle or
the forces. Thousands, perhaps millions, of experiments shotgun, the operation of a jet or propeller-driven air-
of this kind have been performed since Newton first sug- craft, the motion of a boat when a person steps off it,
gested the rule. In every case, the forces the interacting and many other phenomena.
objects exert on each other have been shown to have In each case, the Third Law of Motion describes
exactly the same strength (Fig. 3.12). some features of the relevant forces. The resulting
The properties of forces described above are col- motions are then predicted by the Second Law of Motion.
lectively known as the Third Law of Motion, which is
stated as follows:

Figure 3.12. Why is gravel thrown backward when a car accelerates? What force accelerates the car?

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Summary C. GLOSSARY
1. Acceleration: Change from uniform motion.
The three laws of motion provide important insights Acceleration in this broader sense may be acceler-
as we attempt to understand the changes that occur ation (speeding up), deceleration (slowing down),
around us. The First Law directs our attention to centripetal (change of direction) or a combination
changes from uniform motion, or accelerations. The of these.
Second Law suggests that these are caused by forces and 2. Force: A push or pull. All forces result from inter-
that the motion change in any situation is determined by actions between two objects (Third Law), so that
two factors: the strength and direction of the applied the terms “force” and “interaction” are often used
forces and the mass of the accelerating object. Finally, interchangeably.
the Third Law identifies interactions as the source of all 3. Friction: A force arising from contact between
forces. It also provides certain details about the forces surfaces of materials that prevents or retards rela-
resulting from any interaction that we might discover. tive motion of the surfaces.
You may have noticed that all three laws are need- 4. Mass: A characteristic of objects which determines
ed to understand the motion of any real object. In every the degree to which they can be accelerated by
case we must direct our thoughts to acceleration and applied forces. Mass is also a characteristic of
force and to the relationship between them. Forces in objects that determines the strength of their gravi-
turn lead us directly to interactions. Each law is of lim- tational interaction with matter, specifically with
ited use without the insight that the others provide. other objects with mass.
The genius and insight of Isaac Newton were 5. Net Force (sometimes, resultant force): The sin-
required to discover all three laws at once. Newton led gle force which can be used to replace two or more
the way for each of us to discover the order and harmo- individual forces on an object for purposes of deter-
ny in the motions we observe. mining its motion.
6. Uniform Motion: Motion in a straight line with
STUDY GUIDE unchanging speed.
Chapter 3: Laws Governing Motion 7. Standard: An arbitrarily chosen object of compar-
ison for purposes of defining units of measurement.
A. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES Units of length, mass, and time are defined by com-
1. The First Law of Motion: Every object continues parison to standards. For example, the standard
in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight kilogram is a particular piece of platinum-iridium
line with unchanging speed, unless compelled to do metal belonging to the International Bureau of
otherwise by forces acting upon it. Weights and Measures near Paris.
2. The Second Law of Motion: (a) Forces cause
objects to accelerate. The stronger the net force, D. FOCUS QUESTIONS
the greater the acceleration. (b) Accelerations are 1. In each of the following situations:
less if mass is larger. (c) Acceleration is in the a. Describe what would be observed.
same direction as the net applied force (forward, b. Name and state in your own words the funda-
backward, sideways, or some combination of mental principle(s) that could explain what would
these). More precisely, acceleration = force/mass. happen.
3. The Third Law of Motion: All forces result from c. Explain what would happen in terms of the fun-
interactions between pairs of objects, each object damental principle(s).
exerting a force on the other. The two resulting
forces have the same strength and act in exactly (1) A styrofoam ball and a steel ball of equal
opposite directions. size are each suspended from a cord and sub-
jected to about the same amount of force from
B. MODELS, IDEAS, QUESTIONS OR APPLICA- a blunt-nosed dart fired horizontally from a
TIONS spring-loaded gun.
1. The Newtonian Model (sometimes, the
Newtonian Synthesis): The model based on (2) Suppose an elephant and an ant are both
Newton’s three laws of motion and the Universal moving at the same speed on a level, friction-
Law of Gravitation which explains the motions of less surface: which would stop first (or nei-
the heavens as well as the terrestrial motions of ther)? Assume air friction to be unimportant
common experience. The Newtonian Model when for both.
applied to the motions of the planets replaces the (3) A large truck moving at high speed col-
medieval model which placed the earth at the cen- lides with an unsuspecting mosquito that
ter of the solar system and the universe. before the collision is hardly moving at all.

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What happens to the motion of both the mos- starts moving.
quito and the truck? (d) A ball is placed on a level table fixed to the floor
of a train which is moving with uniform motion.
(4) Suppose a man jumps forward toward a The train suddenly stops.
dock from a small boat that is not securely (e) Same as (d) except the train speeds up.
anchored. What happens to the horizontal (f) Same as (d) except the train goes around a curve
motion of both the man and the boat if the boat in the track.
has less mass than the man?
3.9. The driver of a car has three “accelerators” (con-
E. EXERCISES trols that can cause the car to accelerate). What are they?
3.1. Suppose you have a friend who does not
believe the First Law of Motion is true. How would you 3.10. Suppose you see an object traveling in a cir-
proceed to convince the friend otherwise? cle with constant speed. What can you say for sure
about the force or forces acting upon it?
3.2. If an elephant and an ant are both moving at
the same speed on a level, frictionless surface, which 3.11. Describe an experiment you could perform
would stop first? Assume air friction to be unimportant that would determine which of two objects has the larg-
for both. er mass. Be sure that your experiment is consistent with
the definition of mass given in this chapter.
3.3. An unrestrained child is standing on the front
seat of a car traveling at 20 mi/hr in a residential neigh- 3.12. A constant force is continuously applied to an
borhood. A dog runs in front of the car and the driver object that is initially at rest but free to move without
quickly and forcefully applies the brakes. The child’s friction. No other forces act on the object. Describe
head strikes the windshield. what would be observed under these conditions and
(a) Explain this result in terms of the First Law of explain how the observed results can be accounted for
Motion. by the Second Law of Motion. Finally, explain why real
(b) If the car stopped before the child reached the objects—-cars for example—-do not behave in this
windshield, with what speed would the child’s head way.
strike the windshield?
3.13. Describe the three simple types of accelera-
3.4. Using the First Law of Motion, explain why a tion which are governed by the Second Law of Motion.
passenger in a turning car feels “thrown” away from the
center of the turn. 3.14. Does a car accelerate when it goes up a hill
without changing speed? Explain your answer.
3.5. State the First Law of Motion in your own
words. Explain its meaning. 3.15. Describe the accelerations which occur as an
elevator rises, starting from rest at the first floor and
3.6. What do the words “uniform motion” mean as stopping at the twentieth floor.
part of the First Law of Motion?
3.16. Imagine an object resting on a horizontal sur-
3.7. A car travels in a large circle (in a parking lot, face where there is no friction (an air-hockey table, for
for example) without changing speed. Is the car in uni- example). A force is applied to it so that it accelerates,
form motion? Explain your answer. sliding along the surface. Now imagine that the whole
apparatus is taken to the moon where the same experi-
3.8. In each of the following situations, describe ment is performed using the same object and the same
(1) what actually happens or would be expected to hap- force. How would the acceleration of the object near
pen and (2) how these results can be accounted for by the moon compare with that near the earth?
the First Law of Motion.
(a) A car is struck from behind by a faster moving 3.17. Now suppose that the object in the previous
vehicle. A passenger later complains of whiplash question is taken to a place, a long way from the earth
injury. or moon, where it is weightless. Again, the same force
(b) A car experiences a head-on collision with a is applied to it (using a small rocket engine, for exam-
lamppost. A front-seat passenger is not wearing a ple). What does it do?
seat belt.
(c) A ball is placed on a level table fixed to the floor 3.18. State the Second Law of Motion and explain
of a train at rest in a station. The train suddenly its meaning.

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3.19. An object is traveling on a smooth horizon- (b) If the truck hits the mosquito from the
tal surface where the friction can be ignored. A force is blind side, so that the mosquito couldn’t get
applied (perhaps by a rocket engine or propeller ready, could it exert a greater force on the
attached to the object) in a direction opposite to the mosquito than the mosquito exerts on the
object’s velocity. Describe what would happen and truck? Explain your answer in terms of a
explain how this is consistent with the Second Law of fundamental law.
Motion.
3.29. Describe the force (or forces) which cause
3.20. A rocket in deep space requires less and less you to accelerate when you start to walk. That is, iden-
force to accelerate it at the same rate, even though the tify the interaction, describe the two forces in the inter-
gravitational and frictional forces on it do not change. action, and indicate the directions of both forces.
What can you conclude? Finally, describe the resulting accelerations.

3.21. A car turns a corner at constant speed. Is 3.30. Do we arrive at the Third Law of Motion
there a force acting on the car? Explain your answer. through an inductive or a deductive process? Can the
law be proved to be true? How could it be proved to be
3.22. Show how the recoil or “kick” of a rifle or false?
shotgun can be accounted for by the Second and Third
Laws of Motion. 3.31. Person X stands on a level, frictionless sur-
face. Which is true?
3.23. How would the accelerations of a gun and (a) X cannot start moving, but if moving can
bullet compare if the gun had 500 times more mass than stop.
the bullet? How would they compare if the gun and bul- (b) X cannot change horizontal speed or direc-
let had the same mass? Explain your answers in terms tion.
of the Second and Third Laws of Motion. (c) X can change speed or direction gradually.
(d) X can change speed, but can’t stop.
3.24. Describe the force which causes a car to (e) X can change horizontal motion via verti-
accelerate as it starts from rest. Identify the important cal motion.
interaction, describe the two forces in the interaction,
and indicate the directions of both forces. Finally, 3.32. While riding your bicycle you collide head-on
describe the resulting accelerations. with a moving car. The acceleration you experience is
(a) the same as that of the car
3.25. Explain the operation of a rocket engine in (b) slightly greater than that of the car
terms of the Second and Third Laws of Motion. (c) slightly less than that of the car
(d) much less than that of the car
3.26. (e) much greater than that of the car
(a) Describe what happens when a man jumps
from a small boat if the boat is not securely
anchored.
(b) Explain how the observed result can be
accounted for by the Second and Third Laws
of Motion.
(c) What would be different if he jumped from
a large boat? Why would this situation be
different?

3.27. A balloon is filled with air and then released.


(a) What do you imagine the balloon does?
(b) Explain the imagined motion of the bal-
loon by using the Second and Third Laws of
Motion.

3.28. A truck moving at a high speed collides with


a mosquito.
(a) Describe and compare the forces in the
interaction.

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