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Descriptions of matter in common experience usu- the shape of their container, but resist changes in vol-
ally assume a continuous model. The details of the ume. Gases expand to assume both the shape and size
structure of matter seem unimportant in the design of of their container. Liquids and gases are both referred
bridges, buildings, automobiles, and kitchen appliances. to as fluids, defined most simply as materials that flow.
We do not think of atoms and molecules when we cook, A fourth state of matter, plasma, also occurs in cer-
clean, use a pencil, or burn gasoline. Generally we treat tain situations. A plasma is a gas in which both positive
matter as we find it—uniform and continuous—and and negative charges are free to move independently of
classify it according to the properties that it displays each other. When this occurs, the gas is said to be ion-
when found in large chunks (i.e., large enough to be ized. Plasmas occur naturally in the earth’s upper
seen under optical microscopes). atmosphere, where ionization is caused by radiation
This concept of continuous composition of matter from the sun. Lightning discharges create a plasma.
suits most of our purposes. Although we can explain The gases inside fluorescent lights and neon advertising
most of the properties of matter in terms of more funda- signs are partly ionized when the tubes are emitting
mental models, scientists are still not able to predict accu- light. Very hot flames are also plasmas.
rately many important properties of specific kinds of mat- Some materials, like water, change from one state to
ter. On the other hand, great progress is being made in another at common temperatures; others require extreme
this direction, as evidenced by the large number of syn- temperatures for such changes. All materials, including
thetic, or man-made, materials now available. air and other gases, can be solidified if their temperature
is low enough. They melt into liquids as their tempera-
The States of Matter ture increases, and then vaporize into gases at even high-
er temperatures (Fig. 10.2). They finally become plas-
Most of the matter we encounter occurs in one of mas if their temperature continues to increase. (This
three states: solid, liquid, or gas. Solids are rigid and simple view is slightly complicated by the fact that some
resist changes in size or shape. Liquids flow to assume materials decompose as their temperature increases.)
Table 10.1. Melting temperature, boiling temperature, and specific gravity of common materials.
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One way to classify a given sample of matter is to white light, which contains a rainbow of colors, falls on
identify its state at various temperatures and to note the the surface of a material, some colors are absorbed and
temperature at which it changes state. The temperatures some are diffusely reflected. The reflected light reach-
at which changes of state occur, called the melting and es our eyes, where its color is identified. An apple is red
boiling temperatures, vary widely among different because it reflects only the red part of white light and
materials. For example, hydrogen melts at -259 °C and absorbs the rest. A leaf is green because it reflects only
boils at -253 °C. Gold, on the other hand, melts at 1063 green and absorbs everything else. The sky is blue
°C and boils at 2600 °C. We normally encounter hydro- because more of the blue light than the red light from
gen only as a gas and gold only as a solid. Table 10.1 the sun is scattered toward the earth (Fig. 10.4). What
shows the melting and boiling temperatures for several causes a material to absorb some colors of light and
common materials. reflect others? The answer, as we will see in later chap-
ters, provides important information about the structure
Density of materials as well as the nature of light.
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Figure 10.5. Light from an incandescent bulb contains all the colors. A plasma emits a discrete spectrum that contains
only a few colors.
reflected light have been an important part in under- ter how small the force or how strong the material.
standing the detailed structure and behavior of matter Stronger forces always cause larger deflections.
and of light itself (Fig. 10.5). Civil and mechanical engineers must take such dis-
tortions into account in the design of buildings, bridges,
Response to Force automobile engines, and almost every other project. A
common technique, for example, is to form building
Another way to identify materials is to describe materials so that they will assume a more desired shape
their response to external forces. Materials vary great- when they carry their designed load. A prestressed con-
ly in their hardness (or softness) and their ability to crete beam is curved upward when placed into position,
return to their original shape and size once external but it is straight when carrying its load as part of a build-
forces are removed. ing or bridge (Fig. 10.6). If the beam were straight to
Materials that permanently change shape under the begin with, it would sag downward when carrying the
influence of outside forces are said to be plastic. Soft load.
clay and putty are common examples. Plasticity The stiffness or elasticity of a material is character-
depends on the temperature of the material. Iron, for ized by its elastic constant. This number simply mea-
example, is not plastic at ordinary temperatures but can sures the amount of force needed to cause a particular
be formed into almost any shape when very hot (but still deformation and is defined roughly by the relationship
considerably below its melting temperature).
Materials that deform when forces are applied, but force .
elastic constant !
return to their original size and shape when the forces deformation
are removed, are said to be elastic. A rubber band is Rubber has a small elastic constant, since a small
elastic, because it stretches when forces are applied and force produces a comparatively large deformation.
returns to its original shape and size when the stretching Steel, on the other hand, deforms only slightly when fair-
forces are removed. ly large forces are applied; thus, it has a large elastic con-
Almost all the materials we deal with in ordinary stant. In this sense, steel is far more elastic than rubber.
circumstances are elastic. We often do not notice the Elastic constants are associated with three different
deflections that occur, so we tend not to be aware of kinds of deformations: tension, compression, and shear.
A material is said to be under tension when the forces
act to stretch it (Fig. 10.7); the forces would pull the
material apart if it did not resist. If the forces push
inward on the material, it is said to be compressed; the
forces cause the material to occupy a smaller volume
than before. Shearing forces cause the material to
change shape. These might be applied parallel to the
Figure 10.6. A prestressed concrete beam straightens surface of the material, perhaps by frictional forces.
when a load is applied. Fluids have little resistance to changes in shape, so
their elastic constants for shear would be nearly zero. The
compressional elastic constant of a liquid, however, is
them. For example, when we sit on a chair, the chair usually quite high. For example, water is only slightly
bends slightly because of the force we apply. When we more dense (more compressed) at the bottom of the ocean
stand, the force on the chair is removed and the chair than near the surface. Compressional elastic constants for
returns to its original shape. A bridge made of the gases are considerably lower. A comparatively small
strongest steel bends slightly when we walk on it. Such force on the handle of an automobile tire pump can cause
deflections occur whenever forces are applied, no mat-
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Figure 10.7. Three important ways that force can be applied to materials. Which of these is under tension? compres-
sion? shear?
a significant reduction in the volume of the air inside. some of the charged particles are free to move about
If the forces applied to an elastic material are too inside the conductor. Conversely, the absence of current
large, it will not return to its original size and shape in the nonconductors implies that the charged particles
when the force is removed. Instead, the material will in these materials are not free to move, but are held
become permanently deformed just as if it were plastic. rigidly in place.
The maximum force that can be sustained without per- Metals are conductors—copper, aluminum, iron,
manent deformation is a measure of the elastic limit of sodium, and zinc. Nonconductors include the non-
the material. This is another important property by metals such as phosphorus, sulfur, water, sodium chlo-
which materials can be classified and identified. ride (table salt), and sugar. These are sometimes called
Builders and engineers clearly need to be concerned insulators.
about the elastic limits of the materials they use. In addition, some materials, called semiconduc-
The elastic properties of materials are a result of tors, conduct small currents under appropriate circum-
electric forces acting within each piece of matter. stances. They do not conduct as well as the conductors,
Again, detailed explanations of these properties and but they do conduct better than nonconductors. This
their variations require significant understanding of the means that only a small fraction of the charged particles
submicroscopic structure of matter. semiconductors are made of are free to move inside the
material. Semiconductors made of silicon form the
Electrical Properties basis of our modern computer technology.
Some nonconductors become conductors if they are
Electrical properties provide some of the most melted, or if they are dissolved in water or some other
provocative clues about the internal structure of matter. liquid. Table salt, for example, is a nonconductor as a
Solid materials can be roughly divided into two classes, solid. It becomes a conductor when melted or when dis-
conductors and nonconductors. An electric current can solved in liquid. Other nonconductors do not exhibit
flow through conductors if an electrical force acts on the this behavior. Water is a nonconductor as ice or as liq-
charged particles within the material. Electric current uid, but it will conduct an electric current if certain
does not flow through nonconductors. (Fig. 10.8). materials such as table salt are dissolved in it.
All matter contains electrically charged particles. Dissolved sugar, on the other hand, does not cause
The presence of an electric current means that at least water to become a conductor (Fig. 10.9).
Figure 10.8. Which material is the conductor? Which is the nonconductor? How do you know?
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Figure 10.9. (a) Water by itself is a nonconductor. (b) Adding salt to water causes it to conduct. (c) Adding sugar to
water does not cause it to conduct an electric current.
Nonconductors that become conductors as liquids, spectrum that is characteristic of the material. The emit-
or that become conductors when dissolved in a noncon- ted light is a direct probe into the atom.
ducting liquid such as water, are called ionic materials. In addition to the features of matter described in this
Those that remain nonconductors under these circum- chapter, matter participates in a variety of chemical
stances are nonionic (Fig. 10.10). Apparently the inter- changes. The chemical properties of matter are an impor-
nal structures of ionic and nonionic materials differ. tant part of our description of nature and provide addi-
The charged particles in ionic materials somehow tional evidence for our model of the structure of matter.
become free in the liquid state, whereas those in non-
ionic materials remain bound. These differences can STUDY GUIDE
only be explained by a detailed model of the internal Chapter 10: The Physical Properties of Matter
structure of these materials.
A. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES: No new funda-
mental principles.
All Materials
B. MODELS, IDEAS, QUESTIONS, OR APPLICA-
TIONS
1. The Continuous Model of Matter: That model of
Conductors Nonconductors
(As Solids) (As Solids) matter which sees matter as smoothly divisible
without limit, i.e., matter that is not made up of dis-
crete particles (molecules).
Ionic Nonionic 2. What are the four states of matter?
(Conductors As Liquids) (Nonconductors As Liquids)
3. It is useful to describe matter in terms of density, color,
Figure 10.10. The classification of materials according responsiveness to force, and electrical properties.
to their electrical properties.
C. GLOSSARY
Summary 1. Color: A characteristic of matter imparted to it by
the nature of the reflected light which it transmits to
In this chapter as we begin a study of matter, we an observer.
have followed Aristotle’s lead by classifying matter in 2. Compression Force: A force which is applied in
various ways. Classification is a preliminary exercise such a way as to compress a material.
we will follow in later chapters to find unifying theories 3. Conductor (specifically, of electricity): A sub-
that attempt to explain the characteristics. stance that readily allows an electric current to flow
Matter can be classified according to its physical through it. The opposite of an insulator (noncon-
states: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Matter may also ductor). Copper wire is a conductor.
be classified according to its density, color, response to 4. Continuous Spectrum: A spectrum in which the
forces, and conduction of electricity. All of these give colors blend gradually together without noticeable
some clues to the underlying structure of matter. abrupt changes or missing colors. The opposite of
The spectrum of light emitted by matter is particu- a discrete spectrum.
larly important. Under some conditions, matter emits a 5. Density: Mass per unit volume.
continuous spectrum; under others it emits a discrete 6. Discrete (or Line) Spectrum: A spectrum of sep-
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arate and distinct colors. The opposite of a contin- E. EXERCISES
uous spectrum. 10.1. Describe what is meant by a fluid and give
7. Elastic: An adjective describing materials that examples of substances that are fluids at ordinary tem-
deform when forces are applied but return to their peratures.
original size and shape when the forces are
removed. 10.2. Describe how materials change from one state
8. Elastic Constant: A quantitative measure of elas- to another. How do materials like gasoline and copper
ticity formed by taking the ratio of the force differ from one another in this respect?
applied to a material to a measure of the resulting
deformation. 10.3. Which has greater density, an ice cube or an
9. Elastic Limit: The maximum force that a material iceberg? Explain your answer.
can sustain without sustaining a permanent change
in shape. 10.4. Name several materials that are solids at ordi-
10. Fluid: Matter that flows readily. Gases and liquids nary temperatures.
are fluids.
11. Gas: A physical state of matter that readily 10.5. Name several materials that are liquids at
changes both shape and volume to match its con- ordinary temperatures.
tainer.
12. Ionic Material: A material that is a nonconductor 10.6. Name several materials that are gases at ordi-
of electricity as a solid but that conducts electricity nary temperatures.
when melted or dissolved in water.
13. Ionized Matter: Matter in which at least some of 10.7. Describe what is meant by a “plasma” and
the atoms have been altered from their ordinary neu- give an example of a plasma that occurs in nature.
tral state by the addition or subtraction of electrons.
14. Liquid: A physical state of matter that readily 10.8. Explain the meaning of the word “density.”
changes shape to match its container but that resists
changes in volume. 10.9. Choose several materials and list them in
15. Nonconductor (specifically, of electricity): An order of increasing density.
insulator. A substance that does not readily allow
an electric current to flow through it. The opposite 10.10. Why do people look different when seen
of a conductor. Glass is a nonconductor. under mercury vapor lamps than when seen by sun-
16. Nonionic Material: A material lacking in some light? In particular, red objects seem almost black
way the characteristics of an ionic material. under such lamps.
17. Plasma: A physical state of matter characterized
by fluid properties but in which positive and nega- 10.11. Explain how it might be possible to know
tive charges move independently. something about the materials in a planet without going
18. Plastic: An adjective describing materials that per- there.
manently change shape under the influence of
external forces. 10.12. Explain what is meant by a “continuous”
19. Semiconductor: A class of materials with electrical spectrum.
conducting properties somewhere between conduc-
tors and nonconductors. Silicon is a semiconductor. 10.13. Explain what is meant by a “discrete” spec-
20. Shearing Force: A force that is applied in such a trum.
way as to be tangential to the surface on which it
acts. 10.14. A certain wire stretches 0.1 millimeter when
21. Solid: A physical state of matter that is character- a particular force is applied. Another wire in the same
ized by rigidity and resistance to changes in size size and shape but made of a different metal stretches
and shape. 0.01 millimeter with the same force. Which has the
22. Spectrum: A display of the amounts and colors of larger elastic constant? Explain your answer.
light emitted by a particular source in which one
sees the colors separated from one another. 10.15. Explain why the elastic properties of materi-
23. Tension Force: A force that is applied in such a als must be taken into account when designing build-
way as to stretch a material. ings, bridges, and other structures.
D. FOCUS QUESTIONS: None. 10.16. Explain what is meant by the term “elastic
constant.”
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10.17. Show how forces can be applied to a mater-
ial to produce compression, tension, and shear.
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