Helping Material of MTH202 PDF

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Helping Material of MTH202
Laws of Logic.
1. Cumulative Law
p∧q =q∧ p
p∨q = q∨ p 7. Identity Law
2. Associative Law p ∧t = p
p∨c = p
ts
( p ∧ q ) ∧ r = p ∧ (q ∧ r )
en
8. Universal Bond Law
( p ∨ q ) ∨ r = p ∨ (q ∨ r )
ud
p∨t =t
St
3. Distributive Law el m p ∧c = c
VU
H .co
p ∧ (q ∨ r ) = ( p ∧ q) ∨ ( p ∧ r ) 9. Negation Law
p
To ing
p ∨ (q ∧ r ) = ( p ∨ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ r )
p∨ ~ p = t
te .n
(Tautology)
p∧ ~ p = c
si at
4. Idempotent Law (Contradiction)

eb nn
p∧ p = p
W ja
10. Negation of t and c

p∨ p = p
st //vu
~t =c
~ c =t
Be tp:
5. De-Morgans Law
ht
~ ( p ∧ q ) = ~ p∨ ~ p 11. Double Negation Law

~ ( p ∨ q ) =~ p ∧ ~ p ~ (~ p) = p
6. Absorption Law
p ∨ ( p ∧ q) = p
p ∧ ( p ∨ q) = p
1
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Set Identities.
Let A,B, and C be subsets of a Universal set U. then
1. Idempotent Law:
a. A∪A = A , b. A∩A = A
2. Commutative Law:
a. A∪B = B∪A , b. A∩B = B∩A
3. Associative Law:
a. A ∪ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∪ C ,
A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∩ C
ts
b.
en
4. Distributive Law:
ud
a. A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C ) ,
St
el m
VU
A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
H .co
b. p
To ing
5. Identity Laws:
a. A∪ ∅ = A , b. A∩ ∅ = ∅
te .n
A∪ U = U , A∩ U = A
si at
c. d.
eb nn
6. Complement Laws:
W ja
A ∪ Ac = U , A ∩ Ac = ∅
st //vu
a. b.
c. Uc = ∅ , d. ∅c = U
Be tp:
ht
7. Double Complement Law:

a. ( Ac )c = A,
8. De-Morgan’s Law:
c c
a. ( A ∪ B ) = Ac ∩ Bc , b. ( A ∩ B ) = Ac ∪ Bc
9. Alternate Representation for Set Difference:
A − B = A ∩ Bc
10. Subset Laws:
a. A ∪ B ⊆ C iff A ⊆ C and B ⊆ C
c. C ⊆ A ∩ B iff C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B
2
11. Absorption Laws:

a. A∪( A∩ B ) = A , b. A∩( A∪ B ) = A
Implications(Conditional)& Bi-Conditional
Implication (Conditional) →
1- a. p → q ≡ ~ q → ~ p, b. p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q
→ q , then its inverse is ~ p → ~ q
ts
2- if p
en
3- if p→ q , then its converse is q → p
ud
→ operator is not a commutative coz p → q ≠ q → p
St
4- if p
el m
→ q , then its contra positive is ~ q → ~ p
VU
H .co
so p → q ≡ ~ q → ~ p, so implication is equivalent to its
p
To ing
contra positive.
te .n
↔
si at
Bi-Conditional
eb nn
p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
W ja
1-
st //vu
2- ~p ↔ q ≡ p ↔ ~q
Be tp:
ht
Laws of Logic.
1- Commutative Law : p↔q ≡ q↔p
2- Implication Law: p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q
≡ ~ ( p ∧ ~ q)
3- Exportation Law: ( p∧ q ) → r ≡ p → ( q→ r )
4- Equivalence: p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)
5- Reductio ad absurdum: p → q ≡ ( p ∧ ~ q) → c
3
1.
Solution:
f: R R
g: R R
f(x) = x2 g(x) = 3x + 1
(fog)(x) = f [g(x)]
= f [3x + 1]
= (3x + 1)2
ts
en
= 9x2 + 6x + 1
ud
(gof)(x) = g [f(x)]
St
= g [x2]
el m
VU
H .co
= 3(x2) + 1
p
To ing
= 3x2 + 1
te .n
si at
We observe that fog gof, that is the commutative law does not hold for the composition of
eb nn
functions.
W ja
2.
st //vu
Solution:
Be tp:
f: R R
ht
f(x) = x2 - 3x + 2
(fof)(x) = f [f(x)]
= f (x2 - 3x + 2)
= (x2 - 3x + 2)2 - 3(x2 - 3x +2) + 2
= x4 + 9x2 + 4 - 6x3 - 12x + 4x2
- 3x2 + 9x - 6 + 2
= x4 - 6x3 + 10x2 - 3x.
4
3.
f: R R defined by f(x) = x2 + 3x + 1
g: R R defined by g(x) = 2x - 3
i. fog(x) = f [g(x)]
= f [2x - 3]
= (2x - 3)2 + 3(2x - 3) + 1
= 4x2 - 12x + 9 + 6x - 9 + 1
= 4x2 - 6x + 1
ts
ii. gof(x) = g [f(x)]
en
= g [x2 + 3x + 1]
ud
= 2 (x2 + 3x + 1) - 3
St
el m
VU
H .co
= 2x2 + 6x + 2 - 3
p
To ing
= 2x2 + 6x - 1
te .n
iii. fof(x) = f [f(x)]

si at
= f [x2 + 3x + 1]
eb nn
W ja
= (x2 + 3x + 1)2 + 3(x2 + 3x + 1) + 1

st //vu
= x4 + 11x2 + 1 + 6x3 + 6x + 3x2 + 9x + 3 + 1

Be tp:
= x4 + 6x3 + 14x2 + 15x + 5

ht
iv. gog(x) = g [g(x)]
= g [2x - 3]
= 2 (2x - 3) - 3
= 4x - 6 - 3
= 4x - 9
4.
f: R R defined by f(x) = x + 1
5
g: R R defined by g(x) = x - 1
fog(x) = f [g(x)]
= f (x - 1)
= (x - 1) + 1
=x
gof (x) = g [f(x)]
= g [x + 1]
ts
= (x + 1) -1
en
=x
ud
St
fog = gof = IR el m
VU
H .co
IR is the identity function.
p
To ing
IR(x) = x.
te .n
5.
si at
eb nn
f: N Z0 defined by f(x) = 2x
W ja
g: Z0 Q defined by g(x) = 1/x

st //vu
h: Q R defined by h(x) = 5x + 2
Be tp:
To verify associativity we have to prove that ho(gof) = (hog)of.

ht
Consider
[ho(gof)](x) = h [(gof) (x)]
= h [g (f (x))]
= h [g (2x)]
= h [1/2x]
= 5 * 1/2x + 2
= 5/2x + 2
6
[(hog)of] (x) = (hog) [f(x)]
= (hog) (2x)
= h [g (2x)]
= h (1/2x)
= 5 * 1/2x + 2
= 5/2x + 2
6.
ts
f: R R is the identity function
en
f(x) = x
ud
St
fof (x) = f [f(x)] el m
VU
H .co
= f (x)
p
To ing
=x
te .n
(ff) (x) = f (x) * f (x)

si at
eb nn
=x*x
W ja
= x2
st //vu
Be tp:
ht
What is the smallest integer N such that

a. ⎡N/7⎤ = 5 b. ⎡N/9⎤ = 6
SOLUTION:
a. N = 7 ⋅ (5 – 1) + 1 = 7 ⋅ 4 + 1 = 29
b. N = 9 ⋅ (6 – 1) + 1 = 9 ⋅ 5 + 1 = 46
7
EXAMPLE:
Use the Euclidean algorithm to find gcd(330, 156)
Solution:
1.Divide 330 by 156:
This gives 330 = 156 · 2 + 18

2.Divide 156 by 18:
This gives 156 = 18 · 8 + 12
3.Divide 18 by 12:
This gives 18 = 12 · 1 + 6
4.Divide 12 by 6:
This gives 12 = 6 · 2 + 0
Hence gcd(330, 156) = 6.
ts
en
ud
St
el m
VU
H .co
p
To ing
te .n
si at
eb nn
W ja
st //vu
Be tp:
ht
8

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4. Idempotent Law (Contradiction)

10. Negation of t and c

~ ( p ∧ q ) = ~ p∨ ~ p 11. Double Negation Law

7. Double Complement Law:

11. Absorption Laws:

= (x2 - 3x + 2)2 - 3(x2 - 3x +2) + 2

= x4 + 9x2 + 4 - 6x3 - 12x + 4x2

= x4 - 6x3 + 10x2 - 3x.

= (2x - 3)2 + 3(2x - 3) + 1

iii. fof(x) = f [f(x)]

= (x2 + 3x + 1)2 + 3(x2 + 3x + 1) + 1

= x4 + 11x2 + 1 + 6x3 + 6x + 3x2 + 9x + 3 + 1

= x4 + 6x3 + 14x2 + 15x + 5

iv. gog(x) = g [g(x)]

gof (x) = g [f(x)]

g: Z0 Q defined by g(x) = 1/x

To verify associativity we have to prove that ho(gof) = (hog)of.

[ho(gof)](x) = h [(gof) (x)]

[(hog)of] (x) = (hog) [f(x)]

(ff) (x) = f (x) * f (x)

What is the smallest integer N such that

This gives 330 = 156 · 2 + 18

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