Objectives

 Relate earthquake activity to plate tectonics 
 Define earthquake, and identify the focus and 
epicenter of an earthquake. 
 Describe the types of waves emitted during an 
earthquake. 
 Distinguish between earthquake intensity and 
magnitude. 
 Locate the epicenter of an earthquake
What is an Earthquake?
o Earthquakes: Vibrations (seismic waves) within Earth materials are
produced by the rapid release of energy
 Earth’s crust is in constant motion because of tectonic forces
 Earth’s crust can store elastic energy
 When forces exceed the elastic limits and structural strength of the rocks, the rocks
will break and/or move producing vibrations that travel outward in all directions
Convection currents cause the 
movement of plates
 If the plates become “locked”‐ unable to move
 Potential Energy (PE) builds up 
 PE may be released as KE and the plates move abruptly 
apart
 This sudden release of energy is an earthquake
 Earthquakes
o The actual place underground where the rocks break
producing vibrations is called the focus

o The place on the surface directly above the focus is called

the epicenter
definitions
 Earthquake = Vibration of the Earth produced by 
the rapid release of energy

 Seismic waves = Energy moving outward from the 
focus of an earthquake 

 Focus=  location of initial slip on the fault; where 
the earthquake origins

 Epicenter= spot on Earth’s surface directly above 
the focus
Why do earthquakes occur?
 Fractures, faults
 Energy released
and propagates in all 
directions as seismic 
waves causing
earthquakes

epicenter
focus
Where do earthquakes occur:
1) Most earthquakes occur along the edge of the oceanic
and continental plate

2) Along faults: normal, reverse, transform
What types of forces are created?
Tension Force:
 stretching or pulling force
 Makes a normal fault
http://www.geo.uib.no/jordskjelv/index.php?topic=earthquakes&lang=en
What types of forces are created?
Compression Force:
 force pushing something together
 Makes a reverse fault
http://www.geo.uib.no/jordskjelv/index.php?topic=earthquakes&lang=en
What types of forces are created?
Shear Force:
 a system of forces that operates against a body from
different sides
 Makes a strike-slip fault
http://www.geo.uib.no/jordskjelv/index.php?topic=earthquakes&lang=en
 Seismic Waves
Originate at the focus and travel outward in all directions
 Foreshocks: small earthquakes that come before a major
earthquake
 Aftershocks: Are adjustments in the crust after in earthquake
o Smaller than main earthquake, but can cause as much or more
damage. They can continue for weeks to months. Not every
earthquake produces aftershocks
3 Types of seismic Waves

 P waves (primary waves) Compressional wave

 Particles move back and forth in the same direction as the wave
 Travels the fastest
 Can pass through solids and liquids (gases also)
 Does not cause damage
Types of Waves
 S wave (secondary wave, shear wave)
 Particles move at right angles to the direction of the wave
 Travels slower than P waves
 Can pass through solids only
 Does not cause damage
Types of Waves
 L wave (long wave, surface wave,
ground wave)

 Particles move in elliptical orbit

 Originates on the surface after the P
and S waves go straight up from the
focus and reach the surface
 The L wave causes the damage and
will be the strongest at the epicenter
 Travels the slowest
How do we Measure Earthquakes?

 Intensity – a measure of the effects on an earthquake at a particular

location

 Magnitude: a measure of the strength or amount of energy released

during an earthquake
How do we Measure Earthquakes?

Modified Mercalli intensity scale: An estimate of the

intensity based on observation of actual damage

 A 12 point scale using Roman numerals

 Very dependent upon the quality of structures

2) Intensity: Mercalli Scale:

 What did you feel?
 Assigns an intensity or rating to measure an earthquake 
at a particular location (qualitative)
 I (not felt) to XII (buildings nearly destroyed)
 Measures the destructive effect

 Intensity is a function of:
 Energy released by fault
 Geology of the location
 Surface substrate
How do we Measure Earthquakes?

Earthquake waves are recorded by a seismograph and the recording of waves on

paper is called seismogram
Measuring earthquakes
 Seismometers:
instruments that 
detect seismic waves
 Seismographs
Record intensity, height
and amplitude of seismic
waves
How do we Measure Earthquakes?
 Richter Scale: Measures the amplitude of earthquake waves on
seismograms
 Scale from 1-10
 Each number is 10 times the amplitude of the number below
 Measuring Earthquakes
 Locating the epicenter
1. Lag time between the arrival of the P wave and the S wave to the seismograph
station is converted to a distance
2. A circle with a radius that equals the distance is drawn around the station.
3. Two stations can narrow down the location to two places where the two
circles intersect

 Locating the focus: the lag-time of the L wave will determine the depth of
the focus
 Earthquake Dangers
o Most injuries and deaths are caused by falling objects and most
property damage results from fires that start

 Tsunami: seismic sea wave sometimes generated when an

earthquake originates on the ocean floor
Earthquake damage
 Ground Failure ‐ constructions collapse
 Fires ‐ from broken gas and electrical lines
 Landslides ‐ EQ's triggered; occur in 
hilly/mountainous areas. 
 Liquefaction ‐ water‐saturated, unconsolidated 
materials flow 
 Tsunami (seismic sea waves; "tidal" waves) ‐ can grow 
up to 65 m
Short‐term predictions
1. Foreshocks: usually increase in magnitude

2. Ground deformation

3. Fluctuations in water well levels

4. Changes in local radio wave characteristics

5. Anomalous animal behavior???

Earthquake Dangers
 Liquefaction: unconsolidated materials that are water saturated
may turn to a fluid causing some underground objects such as
storage tanks to float to the surface

Ground fissures caused by liquefaction near the mouth of

the Pajaro River in California during the 1989 Loma Prieta
earthquake. When the surface of the ground oscillates,
wet, sandy, and muddy soils can flow like a liquid. This is
liquefaction. You can liquefy wet sand at the beach by
pumping it up and down with your feet. Photo courtesy of
the Loma Prieta Collection, Earthquake Engineering
Research Center, UC Berkeley.
Earthquake Dangers
 Landslides
Earthquake Safety
 Protect yourself from falling objects (GET UNDER SOMETHING) or
stand in a hallway or doorway.
 Do not try to go outside during the earthquake
 After the earthquake and before the aftershocks, go outside
 Do not return to the building until it has been inspected