Reservoir Rocks

“The rock, which is porous and permeable, contains oil and gas
becomes a reservoir rock.” OR

“Permeable subsurface rock that contains petroleum”

 It can be different from source rock with respect to grain size and
pore spaces.

 Nearly all rocks are reservoir and can be classified accordingly as

i. Clastic Rocks
ii. Carbonate Rocks
iii. Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks
i. Clastic Rocks
 Aggregates of a particle, fragments of older rocks

 Range in size from fine clay to boulder size forming various clastic
rocks, including claystone, shale, siltstone, sandstone,
conglomerates.

 Most important reservoir rocks in this category are sandstone and

sometimes conglomerate due to porosity and permeability. The
fractured shale reservoir is also possible but uncommon in nature.

ii. Carbonate Rocks

 Formed by chemical precipitation or biological precipitation.

 The most important reservoir in this category are limestone and

dolomite.
 Reservoir Rocks Properties
 There are two main properties on the basis of which reservoir
quality of rocks is controlled.

i. Porosity
ii. Permeability

i. Porosity
“It is the ratio of pore spaces volume to the total volume (bulk
volume) of a reservoir rock.”

 It is expressed in %age.

 Mathematically: Porosity (ϕ) = Pore volume/Bulk volume x 100

iii. Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks
 These are rare comparatively to clastic and carbonate reservoir
rocks, from which commercial oil and gas are produced.

 e.g., there are number of volcanic oil fields, which contains oil and
gas includes: Columbia Plateaue of Washington and Oregon, the
Mexico-Arizona Volcanic field, the Deccan Traps of India and
volcanic of pacific.
Porosity on the basis of origin
i. Primary Porosity
ii. Secondary Porosity

i. Primary Porosity
 Porosity which developed at time of deposition.

 Depends upon; size, shape and pattern of arrangement of grains

 e.g., uniform grain size higher the porosity, perfectly rounded shape
higher the porosity. In last when packing is cubic of same size grain
higher the porosity (47.6%) rather than rhombohedral grains
(25.9%).

ii. Secondary Porosity

 Porosity which is developed after the sedimentation process due to
physical and chemical effects.
 The physical and chemical effects includes
i. Compaction
ii. Fracturing
iii. Dissolution
iv. Cementation
v. Recrystallization
vi. Dolomitization

Porosity based on the pore space connectivity

Both primary and secondary porosity could be:
i. Absolute Porosity
ii. Effective Porosity

i. Absolute Porosity
 The ratio of total volume of pore spaces to total volume of rock
ii. Effective Porosity
 The ratio of the volume of interconnected pore spaces to the total
volume of the rock.
 Porosity in Clastic Rocks
(Sandstone)
 There are four basic porosity types within sandstone
(after, Pittman, 1979)

i. Intragranular Porosity
ii. Intergranular Porosity
iii. Dissolution Porosity
iv. Fractured Porosity
 Porosity in Carbonates
(Limestone)
 There are many types of porosities within limestone but can be
groups together in three groups (after Choquette and Pray, 1970)
such as:

i. Fabric Selective
ii. Not Fabric Selective
iii. Fabric Selective or Not
 Porosity in Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks
 There might be only a fracture porosity.
 Permeability
“Ability of a rock to permit fluid flow” through the inter-conneted
pores.

 It is expressed by m2. Mathematically it can be written as by

Darcy’s law:

q/A= KΔP/µ ΔL

q= volumetric flow rates, m3/s

A= cross sectional area, m2
K= permeability, m2
ΔP/ΔL= pressure gradient in direction of flow, Pa/m
µ= viscosity, Pa.s
 Types of Permeability

Absolute Permeability
When only one fluid saturate the effective pore spaces and can pass
through effective pores.

Effective Permeability
When only one fluid can pass through effective pores in presence of
other fluid.

Relative Permeability
The ratio of effective permeability to the absolute permeability
 How to Determine the Porosity and Permeability
A. Porosity
It can be measured in lab as well as in the field.

Lab Measurement
It includes variety of methods but few are most important:

1. Thin Section
 In thin section it can either be measured visible estimation of pore
spaces or point counting under the microscope, can be inaccurate.

2. Volumetric Method (core/plugs)

 In this method two volume out of three (bulk volume, pore volume
and matrix volume) is required to determine porosity.

 Pore volume can be calculated by saturating the core sample with

water/liquid.
 The bulk volume can be calculated easily from the dimensions of
the core sample, if irregular water displacement technique is
applied.

 If the pore space volume and bulk volume is known then apply
direct method, use the formula.

 The matrix volume is calculated when the density of mineral in a

rock is know along with the weight of sample. Then subtract the
matrix volume from bulk volume.

3. Helium Method/Ideal gas Method

 The most accurate method of measuring porosity is the helium
expansion method.

 A dried sample is placed in a chamber of known volume and the

pressure is measured with and without the sample, keeping the volume
of gas constant. The difference in pressure is the pore volume
Field Measurements
 The field measurements include the interpretation of various
petrophysical logs, which are obtained within the field.

 There are various types of geophysical logs but most important

which are used in formation evaluation w.r.t porosity are as: Sonic
Logs, Neutron Logs and Density Logs.

 None of these logs measure porosity directly (some calculation

involved).

1. Sonic Logs
 A log that measures interval transit time (Δt) of a sound wave
travelling through the formation along the axis of the borehole

 The acoustic pulse from a transmitter s detected at two or more

receivers. The time of the first detection of the transmitted pulse at
each receiver is processed to produce Δt.
 The Δt is the transit time of the wave front over one foot of
formation and is the reciprocal of the velocity

 Interval transit time is both dependent on lithology and porosity

 Sonic log is usually displayed in track 2 or 3

 Units: μsec/ft, μsec/m

Uses
 Porosity Identification

 Lithological Identification

 Synthetic Seismogram
Formula
From the Sonic log, a sonic derived porosity log (SPHI) may be
derived:

 This requires a formation matrix transit time to be known.

 SPHI: Unit is Percent or Fraction Hydrocarbon Effect:

 Cp: Compaction Factor

 C: Constant, normally 1.0
Formation Matrix Transit Time
2. Neutron Logs
 Neutron logs measure the hydrogen content in a formation. In
clean, shale free formations, where the porosity is filled with water
or oil, the neutron log measures liquid filled porosity(φN, PHIN,
NPHI).

 Neutrons are emitted from a chemical source (americium–beryllium

mixture). At collision with nuclei in the formation, the neutrons
loses energy. With enough collisions, the neutron is absorbed and a
gamma ray is emitted.

 Since a neutron is slightly heavier than a proton, the element which

closely approximates the mass of a neutron is hydrogen. In neutron-
hydrogen collisions the average energy transfers to the hydrogen
nucleusis about ½ that of the energy originally contained in the
neutron. Where as, if the scattering nucleus was oxygen (mass16
amu) the neutron would retain77% of its energy.
 Materials with large hydrogen content like water or hydrocarbons
become very important for slowing down neutrons. Since hydrogen
in a porous formation is concentrated in the fluid-filled pores,
energy loss can be related to the formation’s porosity.

 Neutron curves commonly displayed in track 2 or 3

 Unit: Porosity Unit (P.U), decimal, fraction or Percentage.

Uses
 Porosity determination

 Lithology Identification
3. Density Logs
A continuous record of a formations bulk density: overall density
of a rock including solid matrix and fluid enclosed in the pores
(matrix and porosity)

 The logging technique of the density is a bombardment of

medium to high energy 0.2 to 2 Mev r-rays and measurement of
their attenuation b/w the tool source and detectors

 Attenuation is a function of Compton scattering;

i. in dense formation; Compton scattering is extreme, few
detectable r-ray reach the tools detectors
ii. while in less dense formation: the r-ray detection is much
high
 the standard density tool have a source of r-ray, which is usually
radio-cesium, which emits rays 662 Kev, radio-cobalt can also
be used and the two detectors near and far that records the
scattering effects.

 Neutron are commonly recorded in track 2 or 3

 Unit: Porosity unit (p.u), v/v decimal, fraction and percentages

Uses
 Porosity

 HC Density

 Lithology
Formula
 Formation bulk density (ρb) is the function of matrix density (ρ𝑚𝑎),
porosity and fluid density (ρf)

 The matrix density and fluid density need to be known.

B. Permeability
 The permeability can be determined by Darcy’s Law in the lab
(core plugs)
 There is no direct method in the field to determine the permeability
from logs
 Reservoir Rock Pressure
 The fluid present in pore of reservoir rock are under certain degree
of pressure, called as reservoir rock pressure/fluid
pressure/formation pressure/bottom hole pressure/well pressure.

 The pressure thus would be defined as “the force per unit area
exerted by the fluids against the walls of the reservoir rock.

 Unit: psi (pound per square inch)

Types of reservoir rock pressure

1. Static bottom hole pressure
2. Flowing pressure
3. Differential pressure
4. Original pressure
1. Static Bottom Hole Pressure
 When a producing well is shut down, the reservoir pressure begin to
rise, until reached final stage where pressure is maximum called as
static bottom hole pressure.

 This pressure is lower than the original reservoir pressure (natural

pressure)

 The difference between the shut down pressure and original

pressure is the decline in reservoir pressure.

2. Flowing Pressure: pressure while the well is producing.

3. Differential Pressure: difference between flowing pressure and

static pressure

4. Original Pressure: pressure of reservoir rock before any production.

Reasons for Reservoir Rock Pressure
1. Hydrostatic Pressure
2. Lithostatic Pressure

1. Hydrostatic Pressure
 Water, which are at rest within sediments, exerts pressure on rock
same in all directions

 Depends upon the density

Hydrostatic pressure = height of water column x density x gravity

Hydrostatic Pressure gradient

 Depth increases; pressure increases, normally the hydrostatic
gradient ranges from 0.434 psi/foot in pure water to 0.5 psi/foot in
brine solution
2. Lithostatic Pressure
 Pressure exerted by overburden of rock

 The lithostatic pressure and hydrostatic pressure are inter-related

Abnormal Hydrostatic Pressure

 This is the deviation from the normal pressure gradient, depend
upon certain geologic factors

 It was first named as “geopressure” replaced by over pressure and

under pressure terminology, these pressure can only be possible
when the reservoir is sealed in impermeable layer called as pressure
compartment.

i. Over pressure: when there is deviation in pressure higher then normal estimated
reservoir pressure. This is caused by uplift, Rock compaction, increase in heat
flow.
ii. Under pressure: when there is deviation in pressure lower then normal
estimated pressure of reservoir. This is caused by burial, decrease in heat flow.