CHAPTER II

ECOFEMINISM: A THEORETICAL APPROACH

The chapter titled ‘Ecofeminism: A Theoretical Approach’ analyses the origin,

development and types of ecofeminism and some major exponents of ecofeminism and their

contribution to ecofeminism theory. Nature performs major miracles for every species on the

earth helping to prevent flood, supplying clean water, providing fresh air and plentiful water. But

human being exploits the whole framework including animals, plants, birds and other natural

resources such as air, water, river for the fulfillment of his own desires. Ecofeminism is a process

of integrating feminism and ecology. Feminism is a complex political, cultural and economic

movement mainly focused on equal rights and legal protection for women. Ecology refers to

everything that is connected to the earth such as water, land, flora and fauna, human and all non-

human world.

Environmentalism is defined as a conventional approach of living in which

environmentalists believe that the modern life is the prominent cause of environmental

devastation and they oppose the modern way of living. Literary ecology talks about the natural

beauty to make the reader get satisfied because of describing the attractiveness of nature in a

literary text. In the ancient times, eco-critics interpreted only American nature writing and

British romantic writing to trace the environmental aspects in the literary works. After the

emergence of the problem of environmental devastation, writers focus their attention on the

nature writing. Nature and literature have common factor that befriends each other through

ecocritics.
 Literature used to hold nature in high esteem and its related scenario. After the evolution

of the theory of ecocriticism or the green study, the literary theory makes a successful attempt to

indicate the environmental consciousness in literature. It conveys a message that the protection

of the environment is very important not only for the present times but also for the future. In

earlier works, writers use nature as the theme but considering about the value of ecology seems

to be lacking in the work of earlier writings.

Ecocriticism is an environmental approach that is developed in the field of literary

criticism and environmental study to extend knowledge in both the fields. Critics interpret the

literary text from their eco-consciousness eyes and they detect the marvelous element of nature

in a work of art. The motive of the ecocritics is to identify several efforts to restore environment.

The phenomena of natural environment including plants, trees, forests, lakes, ponds, streams,

rivers and landscapes has occupied major space in the green study. Location occupies a dominant

role in the theory of ecocritcism.

Ecofeminism is a branch of Ecocriticism which has gradually gained its attention to the

oppression and domination of women and nature. Literary figures like William Wordsworth,

Walt Whitman, Thomas Hardy and other romantic poets gave more importance to nature and its

role in life. For example, Wordsworth’s “The Prelude”, Hardy’s Under the GreenWood Tree and

Far from the Madding Crowd are set in the lap of nature. This theory concerns more about

nature. Ecocritics’ work is to trace how nature is reflected in the work of art and present it to the

readers. The term Ecocriticism was first used by William H. Rueckert in his essay “Literature

and Ecology” who states Ecocriticism as an “application of ecology and ecological concepts to

study of Literature” (Rueckert, “Literature and Ecology” 107). He provides link between

biological and literary activities.

 Ecocriticism is greeted as literary movement developed for environmental preservation. It

discovers ideas concerning to environment and its projection in the works of literature. Jonathan

Bate, a British critic scrutinizes the work of William Wordsworth from ecocentric perspective in

his work, Romantic Ecology: Wordsworth and the Environmental Tradition. In the work, Bate

argues that Wordsworth’s views on nature have great influence on the entire world. This work

lays foundation for ecocriticism in Britain. He further argues that the theme of Wordsworth’s

works is centered on the rejection of industrialization and ‘ideology of political economy’ (Bate,

Romantic Ecology 9).

As a combination of ecology and feminism, ecofeminism is to bring awareness for the

exploitation and oppression of women and nature caused by masculinist. It explores the

consequence of gender categories in order to exhibit the ways in which social norms exert

unreasonable dominance over women and nature. Ecofeminism is originally emerged from the

west. It deals with the study of biological, social and cultural aspects of human life as well as the

behavior and relation of human beings with other entities; thus has paved the way for the

evolution of ecofeminism to solve problems related to women and nature. In the context of

ecofeminism, it is necessary to understand how women are the first hand victims of the

degradation of nature because of their close relationship and dependency on it.

Generally, the connection between women and nature stems from three basic claims.

They are empirical, conceptual and epistemological (Eaton & Lorentzen, Ecofeminism and

Globalization; Warren, Ecological Feminist Philosophies). First, the empirical claim depicts that

woman is the first hand victim of environmental deterioration in the name of modernization

because of her close connection with nature. The second claim is conceptual dealing with the

construction of society based on “hierarchy and dualism” (Eaton & Lorentzen). Patriarchal
ideologies are the root causes of the exploitation of nature and women. The epistemological

claim is centered on knowledge of nature. In this context, women have been historically

considered as cultivators. Moreover, their misson is to protect, preserve and nurture the

environment. These are the three primary connections between women and nature paved the way

for ecofeminism. After exploring the relationship between Feminism and Ecological theories,

Mary Mellor in her book, Feminism & Ecology who states ecofeminism as:

Ecofeminism is a movement that sees a connection between the exploitation and

degradation of the natural world and the subordination and oppression of women.

It emerged in the mid-1970s along-side second-wave feminism and the green

movements. Ecofeminism brings together elements of Feminist and the green

movements, while at the same time offering a challenge to both. (Mellor,

Feminism & Ecology 1)

The term ‘Ecofeminism’ is believed to have been coined by the French writer Francoise

d’ Eaubonne in her book Le Feminisme ou la Mort in 1974. In the book, she argues that

environmental damage is caused by the oppression, domination and exploitation of nature and

women from the western patriarchal society. Eaubonne views women as life-givers, life-

preservers and she asserts that women have concern for future generations whereas men are

deteriorating, exploiting and subordinating women and nature. Furthermore, she claims that

human beings and ecology are two sides of the same coin. One cannot exist without another and

hence it is necessary to maintain the balance between the human and nature.

Annette Kolodny, an American Feminist, critic and activist pioneered the field of

feminist ecocriticism. She brings out ecofeminism concept in her first two books: The Lay of the
Land: Metaphor as Experience and History in American Life and Letters and The Land Before

Her: Fantasy and Experience of the American Frontiers, 1630-1860. Her writings examine the

historic devastation of the land by dealing with environmental concerns in both of these texts.

In her first book, The Lay of the Land, Kolodny has given female imagery to the

landscape. By projecting the land as female, she insisted that the colonists had an ability to get

rid of some of the mystery and terror from an unknown land. In The Lay of the Land, she gives

female figure to the images of the earth. Likewise, in The Land Before Her, she brings out the

same ideas from a different point of view regarding the environment. Ecofeminists theorize that

domination of women is directly connected to the promotion of the environmental abuse of the

earth. These two books provide a link to ecofeminism. Eaubonne and kolodny are considered as

pioneer of ecofeminism in Western ecofeminist discourse.

Ynestra king, a North-American ecofeminist, considers that women are inferior to male-

dominated culture and all social practices. These are the root causes of ecological devastation. In

her work, Gyn/Ecology, Mary Daly, an American lesbian feminist made a contribution to the

field of ecofeminism. She asserts that male connection with culture is regarded as superior to that

of women’s connection with nature. However, she herself rejects this belief and insists on that

women’s connection with nature has more strength than weakness. For Mary Daly, women are

defined as having life-giving power whereas men possess death-dealing power which leads

men’s incapability to develop bonding with nature and stirring up the destructive control over

women and the environment.

Carolyn Merchant, an American ecofeminist claims that Science, technology and

capitalism are symbolized as social progress, but these are the underlying cause of depletion of
natural resources and loss of ecological values. Plumwood, an Australian philosopher and

ecofeminist affirms that production and consumer oriented market economy are the root causes

of the debasement of women and nature. Rosemary Reuther, an Ecofeminist and social activist

insists that women and environmentalists must stand together to put an end to patriarchal systems

that promote hierarchies control and unequal status.

Susan Griffin, a Philosopher, essayist, playwright and ecofeminist is renowned for her

most influential work Women and Nature: The Roaring Inside Her. It is a seminal work of the

ecofeminist movement. According to Griffin, women’s identification with the mother earth is

considered both livelihood for humanity and as victim of male fury. Through her work, she

explores the mixture of history, feminist philosophy and environmental concerns and also raises

the question about the practice of Western society.

Susan Griffin’s target is to attack the androcentric attitude. She claims that all human and

non-human have equal rights because everybody survive under the same sunlight, air, water and

land and hence the destruction of nature is parallel to the diminishment of women’s bodies.

According to Karen Warren, all kinds of ‘isms of domination’ like racism, classicism, naturism,

heterosexism and militarism is the root cause of exploitation of women and nature. These sorts of

domination stir up patriarchy, male supremacy and male gender privilege which are unjustified

systems prevailed in the society.

Greta Gaard , an another ecofeminist asserts that ecofeminism theory is based on peace,

women’s health care, antinuclear environment and animal liberation movements aiming to put an

end to the oppressions of race, class, gender and sexuality by challenging the patriarchal society.
It is required to change the eating habits of human beings as well as to consider about all living

beings thereby supporting vegetarianism. Its intention is to liberate all such oppression.

Natural resource managers, lawyers, legislators and women can contribute to the

preservation of the environment. Even men can also join in the project of the conservation of

natural resources. Environmental organizations aim to resolve environmental problems.

Additionally women have initiated various environmental movements. For example, Save the

Bay association was formed by a group of three women namely Catherine Kerr, Sylvia

McLaughlin, and Esther Gulick in 1961. This organization is formed to oppose redevelopment of

salt flats and to protect Bay from landfills. It encourages the environmental movement in the

United States. These women do not identify themselves as feminist and their goal is to work for a

better environment.

Women are the first to protest against the devastation of the earth. There are many

movements, protests and activities acting against ecological crisis initiated mostly by women to

protect the environment. Women have involved in massive awareness against environmental

detrimental proposals like Narmada Multipurpose Dam, Niyamgiri mining site, placimada

project and so on. Women have also initiated various environmental Movements like Chipko

movement and Green Belt movement which direct the formation of ecofeminism theory.

Women’s intention to take part in Chipko movement and Green Belt movement was to resist

against State Government’s decision of cutting of trees. They aimed at planting more number of

trees to replenish the environment. Today these movements regard as ecofeminism movement.

These movements act as guidance for the evolution of many future environmental movements all

over the world.

 In the ecofeministic vision, the struggle for women’s legal rights cannot be separated

from a struggle to maintain ecological balance. Ecofeminism believes that patriarchal society is

built on four intermixing segments: Racism, Sexism, Class exploitation and Environmental

devastation. Ecofeminist perceives that environmental crisis is a feminist issue. Some of the

major types of ecofeminism are as follows: Vegetarian ecofeminism, spiritual ecofeminism,

liberal ecofeminism, and cultural ecofeminism.

Vegetarian ecofeminism focus on all types of oppression including the domination of

environment and non-human animals are linked and must be eradicated. Vegetarian ecofeminist

argues meat eating constitutes the exploitation of animals. It directly supports the violence

towards animals. Carol J.Adams, a vegetarian ecofeminist includes animal oppression along with

sexism, racism and naturism and thereby bringing out a new dimension to ecofeminism. Adams

insists meat eating is included traditionally in the activity of a male gender whose decision is to

eat meat for strength. For Adams, meat is a food for masculine gender which is a symbol of male

dominance. Here, Adams claims that the oppression of women and animals is connected to

butchering the animals and sexual exploitation of women.

Spiritual ecofeminism is intended to motivate the values of caring, compassion and non-

violence. Starhawk, a spiritual ecofeminist and social activist brings out the three concepts of

earth-based spirituality: The first refers to “immanence” which is the goddess exists in all

particles, in human, animal and plant world. The second refers to “interconnection” which means

the communion between the natural cycles and processes with the plant and animal world. The

third draws attention to “compassionate” lifestyle which is caring for each other. Like Starhawk,

Carol Christ, a spiritual ecofeminist claims that god of patriarchy to be replaced with goddess of
humanity. Christ hopes that religious practice can bring out the harmony between the human and

nature by abolishing hierarchal thinking, ideals and dualism.

In the twentieth century, Liberal ecofeminism is formed by the inspiration of Simone de

Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1949) and Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963).Dr.

Beauvoir insisted that women and nature were biologically varied from one another. According

to Liberal feminist, environmental problem is caused by the death-producing effects of chemical

insecticides and pesticides. To ensure a level of environmental protection, liberal ecofeminist

largely depends on government which state that how women have evaluated nature in high

esteem.

Cultural ecofeminism is emerged in the late 1960s and 1970s. It perceives that women

and nature have been mutually devalued in western culture. Cultural ecofeminist argues that

women have developed an intimate relationship with nature in terms of their gender roles in the

family as a nurturer and food providers and their biological changes such as menstruation,

pregnancy and lactation. They insist that the intervention of contemporary Western culture is the

prime cause for the devaluation of women and nature. As they have greater concern over woman

and nature, they provide more valid bases for environmental policy.

By mapping out Western ecofeminist perspectives, it becomes clear that the result of

patriarchal domination is guided for the promotion of scientific revolution, capitalism and

globalism which are leading the human race to face all kinds of pollution. Some of the Indian

Ecofeminists are emerged recently to bring awareness to the people regarding the debasement of

women and nature. Vandana Shiva, a prominent Indian ecofeminist thinker has made

contributions to the fields of ecofeminism through her major works such as Ecofeminism (Mies
& shiva 1993), The Violence of the Green Revolution (1993), Staying Alive: Women, Ecology

and Survival in India (2010) and Biopiracy: The Plunder of Nature and Knowledge (1997).

Shiva claims that degradation of women and nature is caused by the emergence of new

world order that is providing importance to modernization, development and advancements in

science and technology. Shiva attacks such developments which provide vicious effects on

human beings and are harmful to women and nature in particular and it is a consequence of a

Western paradigm. She claims that terms such as development, progress and globalization appear

to be associated with Western countries. Western countries intend to focus more on productivity

and economic growth rather than paying attention to nature. They assume that natural resources

are available in abundance for sustenance of all life.

A number of influential texts including Susan Griffin’s Women and Nature: The Roaring

Inside Her, Carolyn Merchant’s The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific

Revolution and Karen Warren’s “Feminism and Ecology: Making Connections” have helped to

form the academic movement that sees the parallels between the oppression of nature and the

oppression of women caused by men. Early works on ecofeminism mainly examines the

historical connection between women and the environment.

Another famous ecofeminist is Carolyn Merchant. She is an American ecofeminist

philosopher who is renowned for her theory on The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the

Scientific Revolution. In this book, she implies that Earth is considered as female or mother and

this identity provide link between women’s history with the history of ecological change.

Carolyn Merchant explains that the image of a female Earth has two sides: On one side, Nature is

identified as the nurturing mother who is benevolent to all living and non-living organism in the
universe. On the other hand, another image of nature that is also identified as female is exactly

opposite. It is wild, disordered, uncontrollable which bring drought, storms and other natural

calamities. Both images are identified with female sex.

The metaphor of the earth as a nurturing mother was gradually to disappear because of

the dominant image emerged in the form of Scientific Revolution to mechanize and to rationalize

the worldview. The second image, nature as wild and violent brings out the modern idea that is

power over nature. The core concept of the modern world is formed from two new ideas, those

of mechanism and of the domination and mastery of nature. Merchant suggests that mechanistic

science is involved in the destruction of nature. She further views scientific method as power

over nature and even the torture of nature.

Carolyn Merchant, in her book Radical Ecology: The Search for a Livable World, she

describes the five principles of deep ecology. In the first principle, she asserts that human being

is equivalent to other living creatures on the earth. The goal of first principle is to focus on the

integrity of human with non-human nature. The belief of this principle is, giving equal

importance to all the components on the planet earth. The second principle is a kind of

psychology which focuses on total amalgamation of man with planet. The third principle denies

to considering industrial society as the world paradigm for development and leaving vast region

of land as uncultivated. This principle also mentions about the study of horticulturalist and

hunters to develop a new anthology.

The fourth principle asserts that the most important responsibility of people is to

maintain the integrity of ecosystem which make it more well-organized and well-ordered. It

encourages only ecocentric ethic rather than supporting homocentric ethic. It also demands that
the humans should not exploit other organisms on the earth because of human’s dependence on

ecosystem for survival. The fifth principle supports a new ecological science that promotes the

sort of technology which is formed only for human welfare.

Vandana Shiva, a notable activist and environmentalist in India, in her work, Staying

Alive, Women, Ecology and Survival in India, strives to correlates the concerns of environment

with feminine principle. She is fascinated to involve in the deeper meaning of feminity and

prakiriti (nature). She claims that forests are the producers of river and water resources and their

destruction is the consequence of desertification. She asserts that women’s ecological struggle is

to fight against the fundamental categories of Western patriarchy. They have dispute with

Western concept of economics, production of profits and scientific development as an object of

manipulation and their mission is to consider nature as living force that supports life.

Shiva insists that pollution of air, water and soil is caused by the advent of industries

which disrupts essential ecological processes. It demolishes the capacity of nature and women.

The death of nature threatens survival. It includes the death of forest, soil, water and air. In the

scientific world, women are underestimated first, because their work is to satisfy the water needs

of their families and society.

In ecological terms, what patriarchy perceives as technological and scientific

development is highly destructive (Shiva, Staying Alive 8). She investigates that the excessive

over felling of trees eventually has the potential to transform the forests into non-renewable

resources. As a result, women’s role to collect water, fuel and fodder require more energy and

becoming time consuming process. Shiva has witnessed women travelling long distances to

collect fuel and fodder in the scientific world. Thus she insists that the continuous over felling of
trees ruins not only forest resources but also renewable supplies of water (Shiva, Staying Alive

7).

Shiva classifies the destruction of ecologies into violence against women and violence

against nature. Shiva affirms that the attributes of feminine principle are activity, productivity

and creativity. Nature is nurtured by these feminine qualities and thus it produces life and

provides livelihood and nourishment. In this context, both nature and woman complement each

other. According to Shiva, women produce life not only biologically but also through their role

in conserving the environment and by providing sustenance.

According to Shiva, for women, whose sustenance is based on nature’s productivity, the

death of nature is the promotion of their displacement, marginalization and debasement (Shiva,

Staying Alive 40). Maria Mies considers that women are not merely collecting and consuming

what nature offers them, but also they are largely responsible for agricultural work. Like Maria

Mies, Shiva admits that nature and women are producers of life.

Shiva considers that no one can differentiate person from nature. Shiva observes: “one

cannot really distinguish the masculine from the feminine, person from nature, purusha from

prakriti” (Shiva, Staying Alive 50). She claims that the death of feminine principle transfers from

the concept of activity from creation to devastation and the concept of power is transferred from

empowerment to suppression. Shiva analyses that women’s primary work is to maintain the

intimate link between trees, animals and crops. Women’s partnership with the land, with trees,

with animals and with men enables them to maintain ecological cycle and food cycle. Women

peasants strive to work vigorously with the earthworm to fertile soil as soil builders rather than

soil predators. Shiva also observes that women producing life with nature are taking various
initiative movements for the recovery of nature. She considers that exploitation of forest

resources and women’s special concern and dependence on nature for survival provided the base

for Chipko movement (Shiva, Staying Alive 67).

Shiva mentions about the Chipko Andolan, the first socio-ecological movement in which

the women of the Garhwal district in the Himalayas protested against the commercial felling of

trees by embracing the trees and this movement has recognized worldwide. Shiva notices the

partnership exists between women’s work and nature’s work that ensure the stability of

livelihood. Her participation in the chipko movement enables her to think about women’s

intention during the movement. She affirms that women who initiated various movements are not

speaking merely as victims of modernization but their intention is to raise their voice for nature’s

liberation from ceaseless exploitation. Shiva examines the circulation of water which moves

from seas to clouds, to land and rivers, to lakes and to underground streams and finally it returns

to the oceans (Shiva, Staying Alive 174). She perceives that overexploitation of natural resources

amounts to a breakdown of the cycle of life in rivers, in the soil and in the mountains.

Shiva interprets that water crisis is faced mostly by the villagers in Uttar Pradesh,

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu

and these were created by mal-development and reductionist science (Shiva, Staying Alive 171).

According to Shiva, water scarcity is man-made and the patriarchal mode of progress in science

and technology is actually a mal-development process aimed at fostering Gross National product,

the market economy and Colonization.

The present chapter analyses the various aspect of ecofeminism, its types, and the major

theories of ecofeminism which include Radical Ecology: The Search for a Livable World, The
Death of Nature :Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution , Women and Nature: The

Roaring Inside Her, Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development formulated by various

ecofeminist like Francoise de Eaubonne, Vandana Shiva, Karen Warren, Susan Griffin, Carolyn

Merchant and others whose aim focus on the preservation of nature and the emancipation of

women. GitaMehta’s A River Sutra can be read from ecofeministic perspective as Mehta strives

to assimilate the river Narmada and woman which would be discussed in the subsequent chapter.