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Index Lecture 9
In this lecture:
• surface energy is defined,
• the effects of temperature and contaminants on the surface is discussed,
• methods of measuring surface energy in solids and surface tension in liquids
are given,
• the angle of contact between liquids and solids is defined,
• capillary action is seen as a surface tension effect,
• the size of bubbles is seen as a balance between excess pressure and surface
tension, and
• Laplace's law, for cylinders of fluid.
Surface Energy
Surfaces have energy associated with them because work is needed to form
them.
Surface energy is the work per unit area done by the force that creates the
new surface.
Zn 0.11
LiF 0.34
CaF2 0.45
NaCl 0.50
Pb 0.76
MgO 1.15
Si 1.24
Glass 4.4
Limestone 24.
SiC 32.
C (Diamond) 5.24
C (Graphite) 68.
Granite 200.
From the table, the surface energy is very large for Cast Iron, which is a brittle
material that shatters without much warning. Since brittle fracture creates new
surfaces, the surface energy varies inversely with the tendency to brittle failure.
Example T1
At high temperatures there is a tendency for glasses to change shape into a
sphere. The surface energy of a glass at 650°C is 0.3 J.m-2. If the glass
changes, from a cylinder of length 100 mm and diameter 20μm, into a sphere,
find the energy released.
Answer T1
First find the radius of a sphere with the same volume as the cylinder.
Note: Thanks to Dongfang-Liu for picking up a problem with the above image. 1
Feb 2017.
As temperature increases, the atoms in a solid vibrate more, and reduce the
cohesive force binding the atoms.
The surface energy depends on the net inward cohesive force and so surface
energy decreases with increasing temperature.
The surface energy for many metals (e.g. Ag, Au, and Cu) goes down by about
0.5 mJ.m2.K-1 with increasing temperature.
Water goes down by about 160 mJ.m2.K-1.
• Fracture method:
• Indentation method:
With small specimens an indentation method is
used.
Example T2
A razor blade inserted into the edge of a thin sheet of mica in high
vacuum drives a crack to an equilibrium length along the central cleavage plane
parallel to the sheet faces. The surface energy is measured as 5.0 J.m-2. When
air is let in, then the crack length increases 1.9 times. Find the surface energy
of mica in air.
Answer T2
From the fracture method:
Air molecules have adhered to the new surfaces and reduced the net inward
force thus reducing the surface energy.
Surface Tension
In dealing with liquids, it is more usual to use the idea of Surface Tension rather
than Surface energy, even though they refer to the same dimensional quantity.
This is shown in the following dimensional analysis.
The net inward force on the surface of a liquid makes the surface act as if it was
an elastic skin that constantly tries to decrease its area.
66.2 mN.m-1 60
72.8 mN.m-1 20
75.6 mN.m-1 0
Angle of contact
mercury - copper 0°
Capillary Action
As a result of surface tension acting around
the inner circumference of a small-bore
tube (or capillary), that is partially
immersed in a liquid, there will be a raised
or depressed column of liquid inside it.
The same maths applies if α is greater than 90° but there is a depressed
column.
Example T3
A capillary tube with an inside diameter of 250 μm can support a 100mm
column of liquid that has a density of 930 kg.m-3. The observed contact angle is
15°. Find the surface tension of the liquid.
Answer T3
Pressure difference for a gas bubble in a liquid
What happens as a bubble rises and the outer liquid pressure decreases?
There is a greater pressure difference for a smaller radius than a larger one.
This inverse relationship is called Laplace's law. Note that if the outside
pressure decreases, the inside pressure also decreases so the radius increases
as expected.
Example T4
A bubble of air has a diameter of 1mm when it is 0.5m under the surface of
water (surface tension 73 mN.m-1). Find the gauge pressure inside the bubble.
Answer T4
Example T5
A soap bubble in air (two surfaces) has surface tension 0.03 N.m-1. Find the
gauge pressure inside a bubble of diameter 30mm.
Answer T5
Summarising:
Surface energy is the work per unit area done by the force that creates the new
surface.
Roughly, surface energy varies inversely with the tendency to brittle failure.
The surface energy decreases with increasing temperature.
Contaminants on the surface reduce the net inward force and decrease surface
energy.
by: .
The size of bubbles is a balance between excess pressure and surface tension.
page Lecture 9
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Surface Tension
A molecule I in the
interior of a liquid is
under attractive forces
in all directions and the
vector sum of these
forces is zero. But a
molecule S at the
surface of a liquid is
acted by a net inward
cohesive force that is
perpendicular to the
surface. Hence it
requires work to move
molecules to the
surface against this opposing force, and surface molecules have
more energy than interior ones.
i.e. p = 4/r
Surface Tension
Liquid
dyne/cm
Benzene 23.70
Benzene 28.85
Ethanol 22.75
Glycerol 63.40
Mercury 435.50
Methanol 22.61
n-Octane 21.78
Water 72.75
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Surface tension
Continuum mechanics
Laws
Conservations
Energy
Mass
Momentum
Inequalities
Clausius–Duhem (entropy)
Solid mechanics
Stress
Deformation
Compatibility
Finite strain
Infinitesimal strain
Elasticity (linear)
Plasticity
Bending
Hooke's law
Fluid mechanics
Fluids
Statics · Dynamics
Archimedes' principle · Bernoulli's principle
Navier–Stokes equations
Poiseuille equation · Pascal's law
Viscosity (Newtonian · non-Newtonian)
Buoyancy · Mixing · Pressure
Liquids
Surface tension
Capillary action
Gases
Atmosphere
Boyle's law
Charles's law
Gay-Lussac's law
Plasma
Rheology
Viscoelasticity
Rheometry
Rheometer
Smart fluids
Magnetorheological
Electrorheological
Ferrofluids
Scientists
Bernoulli
Boyle
Cauchy
Charles
Euler
Gay-Lussac
Hooke
Pascal
Newton
Navier
Stokes
v
t
e
Surface tension is an effect where the surface of a liquid is strong. The surface can
hold up a weight, and the surface of a water droplet holds the droplet together, in a ball
shape. Some small things can float on a surface because of surface tension, even
though they normally could not float. Some insects (e.g. water striders) can run on the
surface of water because of this. This property is caused by the molecules in the liquid
being attracted to each other (cohesion), and is responsible for many of the behaviors of
liquids.
Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area.
The two are equivalent—but when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the
term surface energy—which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also
to solids and not just liquids.
In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stressor surface free
energy.
Causes
The cohesive forces among the liquid molecules cause surface tension. In the bulk of
the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid
molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have
other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates
some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area.
Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets. Although easily
deformed, droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the cohesive
forces of the surface layer. In the absence of other forces, including gravity, drops of
virtually all liquids would be perfectly spherical. The spherical shape minimizes the
necessary "wall tension" of the surface layer according to Laplace's law.
As a result of surface area minimization, a surface will assume the smoothest shape it
can.[note 1] Any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area and a higher energy.
So, the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball
pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy.
Water
A. Rain water forms beads on the surface of a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water
adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface
tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest
possible surface area to volume ratio.
B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows
water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the
surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension
forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the
stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then
surface tension pinches it into spheres.[2]
C. Objects denser than water still float when the object is nonwettable and its weight is
small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension.[1] For
example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond. The
surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in
the water's surface, increasing its surface area.[3]
D. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension
in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface
tension", but its physics are the same.
E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing
an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface
tensions of water and ethanol. It is induced by a combination of surface tension
modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.
D. Lava lamp with interaction between dissimilar liquids; water and liquid wax
Surfactants
Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are
used to decrease it:
Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are
unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles
(see Marangoni effect). Notice that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a
factor of three or more.
Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny fragments of oil
suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses. But
the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which permits stability of
minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water (or vice versa).
Basic physics
Two definitions
Diagram shows, in cross-section, a needle floating on the surface of water. Its
weight, Fw, depresses the surface, and is balanced by the surface tension
forces on either side, Fs, which are each parallel to the water's surface at the
points where it contacts the needle. Notice that the horizontal components of
the two Fsarrows point in opposite directions, so they cancel each other, but
the vertical components point in the same direction and therefore add up[1] to
balance Fw.
Surface tension, represented by the symbol γ is defined as the force along a line of unit
length, where the force is parallel to the surface but perpendicular to the line. One way
to picture this is to imagine a flat soap film bounded on one side by a taut thread of
length, L. The thread will be pulled toward the interior of the film by a force equal to 2
L (the factor of 2 is because the soap film has two sides, hence two
surfaces).[4] Surface tension is therefore measured in forces per unit length. Its SI unit
is newtonper meter but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used.[5]One dyn/cm
corresponds to 0.001 N/m.
An equivalent definition, one that is useful in thermodynamics, is work done per unit
area. As such, in order to increase the surface area of a mass of liquid by an
amount, δA, a quantity of work, δA, is needed.[4] This work is stored as potential
energy. Consequently surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per
square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm2. Since mechanical systems try to
find a state of minimum potential energy, a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a
spherical shape, which has the minimum surface area for a given volume.
The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be
proven by dimensional analysis.[4]
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Surface Tension
Table of Content
How do Detergents Clean Dirty Clothes?
o Properties of Surface Tension
o Surface Energy
Simulation for Size of Bubble as a Comparison With Depth
o Force Approach
Angle of Contact
o Case I: When q < 90o
o Case II: When q > 90o
o Capillarity
Rise of Liquid in a tube of Insufficient Length
Energy Required to Raise a Liquid in a Capillary tube
Stokes' Law and Terminal Velocity
Related Resources
Surface tension of a liquid is measured by the normal force acting per unit length. On either
side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of a liquid, the direction of this force is
perpendicular to the line and tangential to the free surface of liquid.
Properties of Surface Tension
Scalar quantity.
Temperature sensitive.
Impurity sensitive.
Depends only n the nature of the liquid.
Unit of surface tension, N/m.
Dimension of surface tension, ML0T-2.
Surface Energy
If the area of the liquid surface has to be increased, work has to be done against the force
of surface tension. The work done to from a film is stored as potential energy in the surface
and the amount of this energy per unit area of this surface under isothermal condition is the
"intrinsic surface energy" or free surface energy density.
Work done in small displacement dx
dW = F × dx = 2TL dx
= 2TLx = TA
As A = 2Lx (area of both sides),
W/A = T (intrinsic surface energy)
Question:-
What is the surface energy of a soap bubble of radius r?
Answer:-
E = TA = T × 4Πr2 × 2 (as it has two surfaces)
= 8Πr2 T.
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Question:-
What is the surface energy of an air bubble inside a soap solution?
Answer:-
E = T × A = 4Πr2T, as it has only one surface
Excess Pressure
The pressure inside a soap bubble and that outside it are not identical due to surface
tension of the soap bubble. To calculate this pressure difference, let's first consider an air
bubble inside a liquid. If the pressure difference is Δp, then the work done to increase the
radius of the bubble from r to
(r + Δr) is given by:
W = FΔr = 4Πr2 Δp Δr
Change in area
ΔS = 4Π (r + Δr)2 - 4Πr2 = 8ΠrΔr.
From the definition of surface tension
T = W/ΔS = (4Πr2 Δp Δr)/(8ΠrΔr) or Δp = 2T/r
For a soap bubble in air, there are two surfaces.
So, Δp = 2 × 2T/r = 4T/r
Simulation for Size of Bubble as a
Comparison With Depth
Bubble bubble boil and trouble. This animaition is used to show size as a comparison with
depth. The user move the bubble around while making observations of size versus depth.
Then the student can make inferences as to why they get this behavior.
Force Approach
Consider the equilibrium of a hemispherical portion of a liquid bubble of radius R and
surface tension T as shown in the figure. For the equilibrium of the liquid bubble.
Angle of Contact
1. Angle of contact, for a solid and a liquid, is defined as the angle between tangent to the
liquid surface drawn at the point of contact and the solid surface inside the liquid.
2. The angle of contact of a liquid surface on a solid surface depends on the nature of the
liquid and the solid.
Case I: When q < 90o
The liquid surface curves up towards the solid. This happens when the force of cohesion
between two liquid molecules is less than force of adhesion between the liquid and the
solid. If such a liquid is poured into a solid tube, it will have a concave meniscus. For
example, a glass rod dipped in water or water inside a glass tube.
Case II: When q > 90o
The liquid surfaces get curved downward in contact with a solid. In this case, the force of
cohesion is greater than the force of adhesion. In such cases, solids do not get "wet". When
such liquids are put into a solid tube, a convex meniscus is obtained.
For example, a glass rod dipped in mercury or mercury within a solid glass tube.
Capillarity
When a piece of chalk is dipped into water, it is observed that water rises through the pores
of the chalk and wets it.
Consider a glass capillary of radius R dipped in water as shown in the figure. The pressure
below the meniscus will be (p0 - 2T/r). To compensate for this pressure difference, water in
the capillary rises so that
2T/r = rgh or h = 2T/rgρ
where r in the radius of meniscus,
r = R/cos θ
where q is the angle of contact.
Thus,
If q < 90o, the meniscus will be concave, for illustration: at a water-glass interface.
If q < 90o, the meniscus will be convex, for illustration: at a mercury-glass interface.
Rise of Liquid in a tube of
Insufficient Length
We have seen, how a liquid rises up into a capillary tube, dipped into it, until the weight of
the liquid in the tube is just balanced by the force due to its surface tension. If q be the
angle of contact between the liquid and the tube, and R, the radius of liquid meniscus in the
tube, we have r = R cos q, where r is the radius of the tube; so that above relation now
becomes,
= 54.1 × 10-3 J.
Problem 2 :-
If a number of little droplets of water, all of the same radius, coalesce to form a single drop
of radius R, show that the rise in temperature of water will be given by θ = 3T/J (1/r - 1/R) ×
10-3 where T is the surface tension of water and J, the mechanical equivalent of heat. (in
Joule per calorie)
Solution:-
Le the number of little droplets be n and the radius of each droplet r. Then the surface area
of all the droplets = n4Πr2 and surface area of the single drop formed by their coalescing
together = 4ΠR2.
And therefore, decrease in surface area = n4Πr2 - 4ΠR2 and
=> decrease in surface energy = (n.4Πr2 - 4ΠR2)
Hence, heat produced = (n.4Πr2 - 4ΠR2) T/J
This heat is obviously taken up by the single drop formed of volume 4/3 ΠR3 and hence of
mass 4/3 ΠR3 × 1 taking density of water to be 1000 kg/m3
If therefore, θoC be the rise in temperature, we have
(4/3 ΠR3 × 1) × 1000 × θ = (n.4Πr2 - 4ΠR2)T/J
or, θ = 3T/J (nr3/R3 -1/R) × 10-3
Now, volume of the single drop = volume of n droplets
i.e., 4/3 ΠR3 = n.4/3 r3, where R3 = nr3
so that, θ = 3T/J (1/r - 1/R) × 10-3 [substituting the value of R3]
Viscosity:-
When a fluid such that a velocity gradient is set up within it, forces act within the fluid so as
to prevent the velocity gradient from existing. This force is due to a property called viscosity.
Suppose that a glass plate in contact with a water column of height h is moved with
constant velocity v. Forces of viscosity appear between the solid surface and the layer in
contact.
i.e. F = ηA dv/dx.
where h is a constant called co-efficient of viscosity. The CGS unit of coefficient of viscosity
y is poise, its dimension is ML-1T-1. The SI units of viscosity equal 10 poise.
Problem 3 :-
A metal plate 0.04 m2 in area is lying on a liquid layer of thickness
10-3 m and co-efficient of viscosity 140 poise. Calculate the horizontal force needed to move
the plate with a speed of 0.040 m/s.
Solution:-
Area of the plate, A = 0.04 m2
Thickness,Δx = 10-3 m
Δx is the distance of the free surface with respect to the fixed surface
Velocity gradient, Δv/Δx = 22.4 N
Problem 4(JEE Main) :-
A small air bubble of radius r in water is at a depth h below the water surface. If P is
atmospheric pressure, d and T are density and surface tension of water respectively, the
pressure inside the bubble will be,
(a) P+hdg – (4T/r) (b) P+hdg+(2T/r)
(c) P+hdg – (2T/r) (d) P+hdg+(4T/r)
Solution:-
Pin – Pout = 2T/r
So, Pin = Pout + (2T/r)
= (P+hdg)+(2T/r)
From the above observation we conclude that, option (b) is correct.
Stokes' Law and Terminal Velocity
When a smooth sphere of radius r moves with a velocity v through a fluid of viscosity η , the
viscous force opposing the motion of the sphere is
F = 6Πηrv
If, for a sphere, viscous force becomes equal to the net weight acting downward, the
velocity of the body becomes constant and is known as termination velocity.
6ΠηrvT = 4/3 Πr3 (ρ - σ)g
So,
Surface tension is the name of a property of liquid while force of surface tension is different from it.
For a solid-liquid pair having acute (<90º) angle of contact,
(a) the liquid wets the solids.
(b) shape of meniscus is concave upwards.
(c) liquid rises up into a capillary tube made of that solid.
For a solid-liquid pair having obtuse (>90º) angle of contact,
(a) the liquid does not wet the solids.
(b) shape of meniscus is convex upwards.
(c) the liquid is depressed in a capillary tube made of that solid.
Question 1 :-
Two molecules are separated an appreciable distance apart. What is the nature of the force
between them:
(a) attractive (b) repulsive
(c) both attractive and repulsive (d) none of them
Question 2 :-
The force of surface tension acts in such a direction that the curvature of the surface
should:
(a) increase (b) decrease
(c) remain the same (d) none of these
Question 3 :-
When the temperature is increased, the angle of contact of a liquid:
(a) first increases and then decreases (b) decreases
(c) remains the same (d) increases
Question 4:-
When a capillary tube is dipped in a liquid, the level of the liquid inside the tube rises
because of:
(a) viscosity (b) surface tension
(c) osmosis (d) diffusion
Q Q Q Q
. . . .
1 2 3 4
a a d b
Related Resources
You might like to refer Solved Examples on Fluid Mechanics.
For getting an idea of the type of questions asked, refer the Previous Year Question
Papers.
Click here to refer the most Useful Books of Physics.
To get answer to any question related to surface tension click here.
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Solved Examples on Fluid
Mechanics
Problem 1:-
The tension in a string holding a solid block below the surface of a liquid (of density greater
than the solid) is T0 when the containing vessel (see below figure) is at rest. Show that the
tension T, when the vessel has an upward vertical acceleration a, is given by T0 (1+a/g).
Concept:-
The various forces acting on the block when it is inside the water are the weight, the
buoyant force and the tension in the string. When the vessel is at rest, there is no net force
acting on the block. The sum of the three forces is equal to zero when the vessel is at rest.
When the vessel moves upward with an acceleration, the buoyant force and the tension in
the string will be differ. There is a net force acting vessel. Thus, the sum of the three forces
is equal to the net force acting on the block.
Solution:-
The weight of the block having mass m which is acting downward is
W = mg
Here,
Acceleration due to gravity at the point of observation is g.
The magnitude of the buoyant which acts upwards is
Fb = Vρg
Here,
Volume of the water displaced by the block is V
Density of the water is ρ.
The various forces acting on the block which is placed inside the vessel is shown below:
As the vessel is rest, the three forces are in equilibrium. Thus, the sum of the three forces is
equal to zero.
Thus,
ΣF = 0
This makes
W – Fb – T0 = 0
Here,
Tension in the string when the vessel is at rest is T0.
Insert the values of the various terms involved in the above equation gives
Fb – W – T0 = 0
Vρg – mg – T0 = 0
So, T0 = Vρg – mg
This represents the tension in the string when the vessel is at rest.
When the vessel is moving with an upward vertical acceleration a, there is net forces acting
on the block. So, there is change in the buoyant force and the tension in the string.
The figure which shows the forces acting on the block when the vessel is accelerating
upward is
Concept:-
The two brass hemispheres with an open flat can be replaced with two hemispheres with a
closed flat end.
The force required to pull apart the hemispheres is equal to pressure times the surface
area.
Solution:-
(a) It is given that the pressure difference between outside and inside the sphere is ?p . The
radius of the circle formed by the half hemispheres which face each other is R.
Now, the surface area of the hemisphere is
A = πR2
The force required to pull the apart the brass hemisphere is
F = ?pA
= ?p (πR2) = πR2 ?p
Therefore, the force required to pull apart the two hemispheres is πR2 ?p.
(b) It is given that the inside pressure is 0.11 atm.
Thus, the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the hemispheres is
?p = 1.00 atm – 0.11 atm = 0.89 atm
Substitute 0.305 m for R and 0.89 atm for ?p in the equation F = πR2?p
F = πR2?p
= (3.14) (0.305 m)2 (0.89 atm) (1.01×105 Pa/1 atm) [(1 kg/m.s2)/1 Pa]
= (2.5997×104 kg.m/s2) [1 N/(1 kg.m/s2)] = 2.5997×104 N
Rounding off to three significant figures, the force required to pull apart the two
hemispheres by the team of horses is 2.5997×104.
(c) The two teams of horses were used so as to pull apart the brass hemispheres. They
could not do so as the pressure difference is too high. For such pressure difference, large
amount of force is required.
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Problem 6:-
The below figure displays the phase diagram of carbon, showing the ranges of temperature
and pressure in which carbon will crystallize either as diamond or graphite. What is the
minimum depth at which diamonds can form if the local temperature is 100ºC and the
subsurface rocks have density 3.1 g/cm3. Assume that, as in a fluid, the pressure is due to
the weight of material lying above.
Concept:-
The gauge pressure of the carbon lysing at a depth h from the surface of the Earth is
p = ρgh
Here, density of the subsurface rocks is ρ and acceleration due to gravity is g.
Solution:-
The corresponding phase diagram of carbon is represented as
From the graph, the point A gives the corresponding gauge pressure at the temperature of
1000ºC. It is found to be 4 GPa.
From the equation p = ρgh, the minimum depth at which diamonds can form at the
temperature of 1000ºC is
h = p/ρg
Substitute 4 GPa for p, 3.1 g/cm3 for ρ and 9.8 m/s2 for g in the equation h = p/ρg gives
h = p/ρg
= (4 GPa) (109 Pa/1 GPa) [(1 kg/m.s2)/1 Pa] / (3.1 g/cm3) (10-3 kg/1 g) (102 cm/1 m)3 (9.8
m/s2)
= 1.3167×105 m
Rounding off to two significant figures, the minimum depth at which diamond can form from
the carbon depth below the Earth is 1.3167×105 m.
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Problem 7:-
In analyzing certain geological features of the Earth, it is often appropriate to assume that
the pressure at some horizontal level of compensation, deep in the Earth, is the same over
a large region and is equal to the exerted by the weight of the overlying material. That is,
the pressure on the level of compensation is given by the hydrostatic (fluid) pressure
formula. This requires, for example, that mountains have low-density roots; as shown in
below figure. Consider a mountain 6.00 km high. The continental rocks have a density of
2.90 g/cm3; beneath the continent is the mantle, with a density of 3.30 g/cm3. Calculate the
depth D of the root. (Hint: Set the pressure at points a and b equal; the depth y of the level
of compensation will cancel out.)
Concept:-
The gauge pressure at a depth h from the surface of the Earth is
p = ρgh
Here, acceleration due to gravity is g and density of the material inside the Earth is ρ .
Solution:-
Referring the figure 15-25 given in the problem, the pressure at the point a should be
considered from the top of the mountain.
So, the corresponding pressure is
pa = ρcg (6.0 km + 32 km + D) + ρMg (y – D)
Here, density of the material of the continent is ρc, density of the material of the mantle
is ρM and depth of the mantle is y.
pb = ρcghc + ρMg y
Referring the figure 15-25 given in the problem, the pressure at the point b is
Here, depth of the continent is hC.
The hydrostatic pressures at the points a and b is equal.
Thus,
pa = pb
ρcghc + ρMgy = ρcg (6.0 km + 32 km + D) + ρMg (y – D)
ρchc + ρMy = ρc (6.0 km + 32 km + D) + ρMy –ρMD
D = (ρc / ρM – ρc) [(6.0 km + 32 km) – hC]
Substitute 2.9 g/cm3 for ρc, 3.3 g/cm3 for ρM and 32 km for hC in the above equation gives
D = (ρc / ρM – ρc) [(6.0 km + 32 km) – hC]
= {[2.9 g/cm3] / [3.3 g/cm3 – 2.9 g/cm3]} [(6.0 km + 32 km) – 32 km]
= (7.25) 6.0 km) (103 m/1 km) = 43.5×103 m
Therefore, the depth D of the root is 43.5×103 m.
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T=F/L
Where,
F is the force per unit length
L is the length in which force act
T is the surface tension of the liquid
SI Unit N/m
Methods of measurement
Some methods of measurement of surface tension is given in the points below.