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cells Battery
(+protection) DC bus Electric drive
Management DC-DC VDC propulsion
in Vbat
series System (BMS) converter components
_ _
• Battery pack: Stack battery cells in parallel and series
• BMS: Monitor battery state (voltage, SOC, SOH), perform cell
balancing, communicate with vehicle controller
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Packaging: Single Cylindrical Cells
2
Packaging: Prismatic Cells
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Battery Packs
Nissan Leaf
Ford C‐Max Energi
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Temperature Effects: Cell Characteristics
Cnom = 20 Ah cell tested at 0.5C charge/discharge rate
Reference: S. Chackoa, Y. M. Chunga, Thermal modeling of Li‐ion polymer battery
for electric vehicle drive cycles, Journal of Power Sources, Volume 213, 1
September 2012, Pages 296–303
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Temperature effects: aging and cycle life
• Crystal formation around the electrodes, reduces the
effective surface area
• Passivation: growth of a resistive layer that impedes the
chemical reactions
• Corrosion consumes some of the active chemicals
Aging leads to:
• Increased series resistance, reduced power rating
• Reduced capacity
End of life: drop to 80% of the original power or capacity rating
All of aging processes are accelerated with increased
temperature
6
Battery system electrical circuit model
assumption: identical cells
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Battery Simulink Model
ECEN5017 2
Battery Model (D)
SOC
Mp = number of cells in parallel
Open-circuit voltage
Ns = number of cells in series
as a function of SOC
SOC
1-D T(u)
1
Ibat 1
Ibat >= 0 -1/(Mp*Cnom*3600) 100
s Vz SOC VOC_cell
Integrator Percent
etaC
Cnom Limited Conversion Voltage-vs-SOC
Coulomb Switch (capacity in Ah) Characteristic
efficiency Vsp
Series resistances
Rp/Mp
Vsn
positive Ibat Series resistance Ns 1
Vcell Vbat
for Ibat>0 Vbat
Number of
cells in series
Rn/Mp
Vr
negative Ibat Series resistance
for Ibat<0
Diffusion
1
R1
R1/Mp Vh
tau1.s+1
R1 (diffusion) Diffusion
low-pass
output
voltage
loop
Ibat Vh
Hysteresis
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Battery Simulink Model
Vbat
Vbat
Ibat
Repeating SOC
SOC
Sequence
Stair Li-ion battery
Ibat
Ebat
1 Scope
-1 s
Product Integrator
Gain
Example: Mp = 2, Ns = 100
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Battery waveforms (an example)
400
350
300
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10
0
-10
6
x 10
4
2
0
92.3%
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Charging
11
CCCV Charging example
390
380
370
360
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10
-10
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Effects of cell mismatches and the need for
battery management system (BMS)
Mismatches in cell characteristics
• Capacity
• Leakage (self‐discharge) current
• Other parameters: series resistance, …
Mismatches in cell SOC’s during operation
Animations at: http://liionbms.com/balance/index.html
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Cell versus system capacity [Ah]
Discharge, assuming equal
starting SOC=100%
Q Ci 1 SOCmin,i
Cmin minCi
Q Cmin 1 0
Csystem Cmin
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Charging and discharging a system with
mismatched cells
System must sense individual cell
voltages or (better) employ
individual cell SOC estimators
15
System capacity with unbalanced SOC’s
Discharge, assuming unequal
starting SOC’s
Q Ci SOCo ,i SOCmin,i
Csystem Cmin
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Passive “top” balancing
Animated example: http://liionbms.com/balance/index.html
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Example: TI bq76PL536A
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19
20
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Active balancing
Example: switched‐capacitor charge shuttling
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Active balancing architectures
http://liionbms.com/php/wp_passive_active_balancing.php
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Cell versus system capacity [Ah] with
charge re‐distribution
Discharge, assuming equal
starting SOC=100%
C system Ci
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