EFFECT OF PRIVATE TURTORING ON THE ACADEMIC

ACHIEVEMENTS OF STUDENTS INPHYSICS

AT SECONDARY LEVEL

By

Masood ur Rehman

CONTENTS

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 2

1.1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .............................................................. 3

1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY .................................................................... 3

1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................. 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 4

2.1. THEORATICAL FRAMEWORK ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

2.1.1 Teaching of Physics ................................................................................. 4

2.1.2 Aims of Teaching Physics ....................................................................... 5

2.1.3 Private Tutoring ....................................................................................... 5

2.1.4 Theoretical Approaches to Private Tutoring ............................................ 6

2.1.5 Determinants of Private Tutoring ............................................................ 7

2.1.6 The Relation Between Private Tutoring and Academic Achievement .. 12

2.1.7 Empirical Literature on the Effect of Private Tutoring on Outcomes ... 14

2.2. PREVIOUS RESEARCHES ......................................................................... 15

2.3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 19
 1. INTRODUCTION

Physics education has become an integral part of college education. The quality

of physics teaching is to be developed considerably so as to achieve its purposes and

objectives to understand basic principles, to develop problem solving analytical skills

and ability to apply them. The physics teaching must be effective and innovative and

beneficial to pupils. Daniel (2012). In Pakistan, majority of the parents provides tuition

facilities for their children to improve their academic performance. There are some

reasons for which they arrange tuition for their children. Firstly, some parents are

uneducated or illiterate and secondly some parents are educated but have no time and

remain too much busy to improve their economical position. Therefore, they come late

to their homes. It is a reality that parents spent a lot of their economy on their children

education, but they are not able to look after their academic activities. Research shows

that parental involvement and participations play a fundamental role in increasing the

level of educational attainment of their children. Parents engage some tutors at home

for making up the academic deficiencies and for increasing the academic abilities of

their children. For this purpose, professional tutors are appointed for tutoring the

children at home and gradually this trend of tutoring is being converted into a tradition

rather an academic requirement (Atta, et al., 2011). Research reveals that private or

home tuition after school time plays a crucial role in strengthening and improving

student’s academic achievement (Atta, et al., 2011). Student achievement measures the

amount of academic content a student learns in a determined amount of time. Each

grade level has learning goals or instructional standards that educators are required to

teach. Standards are similar to a 'to-do' list that a teacher can use to guide instruction.

Student achievement will increase when quality instruction is used to teach

instructional standards. (study.com)

2
1.1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The present study will be conducted to explore the effect of private tutoring on

the academic achievements of the students of physics at secondary level in selected

public schools of city Muzaffarabad.

1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objectives of the study are:

• To explore the reasons of the trend of private tutoring among the secondary

school students in city Muzaffarabad.

• The find out the effect of private tutoring on the achievements of physics at

secondary level in selected public schools of city Muzaffarabad.

1.3. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The research will answer the following questions:

• What are the reasons of the emerging trend of private tutoring among the

secondary school students in city Muzaffarabad?

• What is the effect of private tutoring on the achievements of physics at

secondary level in selected public schools of city Muzaffarabad?

3
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Teaching of Physics

According to Craven, J. A., & Penick, J. (2001). Teaching of science is essential

for developing scientific attitudes. The learning of sciences is based upon the

fundamental principles of psychology, i.e. learning by doing, learning by observing

concrete and living specimen.

According to Rudolph (2002),Physics teaching learning provides more

possibilities of involving children in such activities as are liked by the students.

Students learn best, when they are actively involved in the learning process. They need

opportunities to hone their interpersonal skills to achieve the various educational

objectives that are the part of curriculum. Physics teaching provides more opportunities

of carrying out practical work in comparison to social sciences which are practical in

nature. Basically, Physic is a very interesting subject and teaching physics involves a

lot of fun.

Brown, M. (2002) most of educators show that teachers as learning facilitators

can facilitate students to learn and help students to get their aims. The importance of

physics teaching and how teachers teach in their classrooms is being recognized as key

importance in many ways. It is clear that teaching their classes is the most important

thing that teachers do, an importance that is recognized in contemporary educational

policies in Pakistan.

4
2.2 Aims of Teaching Physics

Government of Pakistan (2006) has set the aims of the physics course at

secondary school level. These aims are to enable student to:

1. develop interest, motivation and sense of achievement in the study of physics

2. develop the ability to describe and explain concepts, principles, systems,

processes and applications related to physics.

3. develop the thinking process, imagination, ability to solve problems, data

management, investigating and communication skills.

4. develop an attitude of responsible citizenship, including respect for the

environment and commitment to the wise use of resources.

5. recognize the usefulness and limitations of scientific method and the

interaction between science, technology and society

2.3 Private Tutoring

It is quite difficult to reach a consensus on a definition of private tutoring. For

example,Lee (2007) defines it loosely as the form of out-of-school supplementary

education for remediation and enrichment purposes. Bray and Kwok (2003) change

these dimensions slightly. They remove the dimension of supplementation and consider

private tutoring “additional to the provision by mainstreaming schooling.” In addition,

private supplementary tutoring should be provided outside of school hours. Finally,

they change the term privateness into financial gain. Other educational models are

similar to private tutoring. Some scholars examine shadow education (Baker et al.,

2001; Baker &LeTendre, 2005; Bray, 2006; Lee, 2007; Stevenson & Baker, 1992).

Shadow education involves “a set of educational activities outside formal schooling

5
that are designed to improve a student’s chances of successfully moving through the

allocation process” (Stevenson & Baker, 1992). However, shadow education could

have some negative connotations because of the word “shadow.” In some English

speaking countries, private tuition is used instead ofprivate tutoring (Foondun, 2002;

Ireson, 2004; Smyth, 2009). Private tuition is “extra coaching in academic and

examinable subjects that is given to students outside school hours for remuneration”

(Foondun, 2002, p. 487).

The common factor in these definitions of private tutoring, shadow education,

and private tuition is the idea of education outside of school hours. Therefore, we

considered all learning activities out of school as private tutoring in this paper.

2.4 Theoretical Approaches to Private Tutoring

The theoretical frameworks on private tutoring can be divided into three

categories: human capital theory, status competition theory, and theories from an

institutional standpoint. In human capital theory, if people learn economically valuable

knowledge, skills, and creativity through education or training, their productivity

increases and thus they can obtain better results (Baker, 1993). Specifically, education,

both formal and non-formal, is considered the most important action to accumulate

human capital in human capital theory. According to this perspective, private tutoring

can become a valuable method of accumulating human capital (Paik, 1999). In other

words, private tutoring is understood as an investment rather than from the perspective

of consumption in human capital theory.

In status competition theory, private tutoring is explained as a means of

competition to acquire a higher social status, not as a means to improve productivity.

People tend to invest in education to obtain higher levels of education because level of

6
education is recognized as an important means to acquire an elevated social status. As

a result, the level of education has continuously increased and schools tend to compete

with each other to send more students to higher grade and prestigious schools. However,

when competition related to education intensifies in this way, parents spare nothing

when investing in their children’s education and this increases the demand for private

tutoring (Dore, 1976).

From an institutional standpoint, the demand for private tutoring does not

simply result from the competition to acquire a higher status. On the contrary, the

climate in which private tutoring is taken for granted encourages private tutoring (Baker

&LeTendre, 2005; Baker et al., 2001). From this perspective, members make use of

private tutoring because private tutoring is taken for granted by the institution.

2.5 Determinants of Private Tutoring

• Micro factors

There are several studies that explored the determinants or drivers of private

tutoring. Based on related studies, Dang and Rogers (2008) accumulated the results in

existing studies regarding what kinds of micro and macro factors influence the demand

for private tutoring. In terms of micro factors, many studies show a consensus that the

most influential micro factors are household income, parental education, and urban

location (Assaad & El-Badawy, 2004)

Stevenson & Baker, 1992; Tansel & Bircan, 2006; Dang, 2007b). Specifically,

students whose parents live in an urban area with higher income and education levels

have a higher probability of receiving private tutoring than their peers who live in a

rural area with parents with lower income and education levels. Similar patterns have

been found in Korea (Kim & Lee, 2010)

7
 In addition, a student’s grade level and household size explain the pattern of

demand for private tutoring in some countries. In Egypt and Vietnam, students in higher

grade levels, especially the ones in the last grade of their current school level or in

diploma-granting years, showed a higher demand for private tutoring (Assaad & El-

Badawy, 2004; Dang, 2007b). And in Korea, Turkey, and Vietnam, the number of

children in households showed a negative relationship with private tutoring

expenditures (Kim & Lee, 2010; Tansel & Bircan, 2006. However, the household size

variable is likely to be endogenous. For example, parents who have several children

may have a lower level of parental concern for their children’s education or different

educational beliefs. In addition, resources such as government subsidies and corporate

benefits for people with multiple children may affect parents’ decision on how much

they spend money on private tutoring. However, since these different characteristics of

parents with multiple children are difficult to measure and unobserved, it would create

bias in estimating its effect.

Baker et al. (2001) also argued that student academic performance is one of the

factors that determine the private tutoring expenditures of households. However, this

factor plays out differently in different countries. For example, using data from the

Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in 1995 for 41 countries,

Baker et al. (2001) showed that in three-fourths of these countries, low-performing

students spent more money on private tutoring, whereas one-fourth of them exhibited

an opposite pattern. This implies that some countries use private tutoring as a remedial

strategy, while other countries consider it as an enrichment strategy (Baker et al, 2001;

Won, 2001). In this study, Baker et al. (2001) used the OLS estimation to explore the

determinants of private tutoring with several control variables including a composite

measure of socioeconomic status of students, their gender, type of community, at-

8
school remedial resources, and whether there is a difference between the language used

at home and the language used in school instructions. However, there were many

unobserved variables that the authors failed to control such as student academic

motivation and parent academic aspiration for their children, which make estimates

biased.

Stevenson and Baker (1992) used a logistic regression equation to find the

determinants of the shadow education in Japan. In addition to the micro factors

mentioned above, student’s gender, student curriculum track (academic track vs.

vocational track), and high school reputation seem to explain the pattern of students’

shadow education in Japan. They found that male students, students in the academic

track, and students in high schools that have a higher reputation spent more money on

shadow education than their counterparts.

• Macro factors

In addition to micro factors, the literature on private tutoring has cited several

macro factors that seem to foster the demand for private tutoring. First, Bray (1999)

argued that as some of underdeveloped countries have transitioned to a market

economy, the demand and supply of private tutoring have substantially increased. As

the economy improves, increasing the real income of households, households would

start spending more money on their children’s education and other goods, an income

effect in economics. Bray (1999) used cases in China, Vietnam, and Eastern Europe to

show the emergence of supplementary tutoring, which previously did not exist in these

countries.

Stevenson and Baker (1992) introduced another macro factor that would affect

people’s decisions on private tutoring. If there is a tight linkage between education and

9
future success in the labor market, they argued that this linkage would stimulate the

competition for more education, and thus private tutoring. Given this tight linkage, the

existence of high-stakes formal examination, a prerequisite to acquire more education

in higher education institutions, increases the demand for education even more

(Stevenson & Baker, 1992; Bray, 1999). In the case of Taiwan, the view is pervasive

that students participate in shadow education to prepare for university entrance

examinations because getting into prestigious universities determines their success in

the labor market (Lin, 1983). Also, in Hong Kong, there is high demand for shadow

education as a preparation for the secondary-school-certification examinations because

performance on the exam is the most crucial factor that determines their job and salary

level (Sweeting, 1983). However, Baker et al. (2001) found the opposite result in terms

of the influence of high-stakes testing. They analyzed 41 countries using the 1994-95

TIMSS data and found no relationship between the existence of high-stakes testing and

the use of shadow education.

Cultural values are also emphasized to explain the pattern of private tutoring in

many countries. Bray (1999) argued that supplementary tutoring is especially prevalent

in cultures that stress effort. Many Asian cultures, which show a high demand for

tutoring, are influenced by Confucian traditions that stress effort as a factor for future

success, whereas a person’s ability is more emphasized in European and North-

American cultures (Rohlen & LeTendre, 1996). In addition, “many Asian cultures value

disciplined study and are both competitive and status conscious,” which influence

people’s need for private tutoring (Bray, 1999). In terms of competition, the intensive

competition among students for college entrance in Korea is analyzed as one of the

important determinants of private tutoring (Lee, 2005).

10
 The ineffectiveness of the public education system is found as one of the

determinants of private tutoring (Silova & Bray, 2006). In Korea, the public education

system is regulated strictly by the government especially after the introduction of the

Middle School and High School Equalization Policy (Lee & Hong, 2001). Due to this

rigidity, it is completely insulated from the market forces and local parents’ demand for

education (Kim & Lee, 2010). To meet this high demand, parents and students who are

not satisfied with education provided by the public school system find other ways to

meet their needs by participating in the private tutoring sector or by studying abroad

(Kim, 2004). Several Korean researchers have conducted studies to analyze whether

the High School Equalization Policy is one of the factors fanning the increasing demand

for private tutoring, and they argued that this policy has played a significant role (Lee

& Hong, 2001; Kim et al., 2003; Kim et al., 2003). Buchmann (1999) and Silova and

Bray (2006) expressed concerns that low pay levels and weak monitoring of teachers

in the public system may create a private tutoring market for teachers who wish to reap

more rewards from teaching outside the public schools. Private supplementary tutoring

may become more necessary in systems that are teacher-centered rather than child-

centered, and are intolerant of slow learners (Bray, 1999). However, most of these

studies are speculative and anecdotal and do not indicate the causal link between the

nature of education systems and demand for private tutoring. The degree to which mass

education is institutionalized within a nation is also related to the national use of shadow

education (Baker et al., 2001). Baker et al. (2001) used two variables as indicators for

the degree of mass education in a nation: public expenditures on education as

percentage of GNP and gross enrollment ratio at elementary and secondary levels from

the UNESCO Statistical Yearbooks. This study found that the expanded provision of

mass education does not generate a higher prevalence of shadow education use. In other

11
words, families in a less funded and less enrolled system use more shadow education

than families in a fully developed, mass-education system.

As explained above, many researchers have introduced these macro factors that

may determine the demand for private tutoring. However, there is little formal empirical

research to test the above-described hypotheses, so it is still uncertain whether there are

causal relationships between these macro factors and the prevalence of private tutoring.

2.6 The Relation Between Private Tutoring and Academic Achievement

There is an ongoing debate about the influence of private tutoring on academic

achievement. In previous studies, analyses have been performed with individual

sampling methods in the early 2000s. Later, studies began using international

achievement data, such as TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science

Study) or PISA (Program for International Assessment) (Yang & Kim, 2003; Nam,

2008), and longitudinal data (e.g., Korea Youth Panel, Korean Education &

Employment Panel, Korean Education Longitudinal Study) (Park & Do, 2005; Lee,

2006; Kim, 2007; Lee &Im, 2009; Kang & Lee, 2010).

The results of these studies on the relation between private tutoring and

achievement were not consistent. For example Hahn et al. (2001) analyzed a survey

conducted for 11th grade students and found that the achievement of students who had

received private tutoring was not statistically significant. Moreover, the independent

effects of private tutoring were not verified even after variables such as home

backgrounds, personal characteristics, gender, and region were controlled. Kim (2007)

analyzed the Korean Education and Employment Panel and revealed that expenses paid

for private tutoring had no statistically significant influence on the results of the College

Scholastic Ability Test.

12
 Other studies have shown that private tutoring exerted a partial effect on

achievement, but the influence was not systematic. Lee (2002) showed that there was a

partial effect of private tutoring on English even though the effect of private tutoring

was not verified in subjects such as Korean and mathematics. Yang and Kim (2003)

showed that private tutoring had an influence on achievements in mathematics, whereas

private tutoring had a statistically significant influence on achievements inmathematics

in all of the studies performed by Lee (2006), Park (2010), and Lee and Im (2009). On

the other hand, Ban et al. (2005) found a negative relation between private tutoring and

academic achievement by analyzing the relations between variables related to private

tutoring, specifically the amount of time and expenses invested into private tutoring,

and academic achievement, using the Korean Education & Employment Panel. Finally,

it was shown that the influence of private tutoring on academic achievement differed

by a small degree according to subject.

Several recent analyses for other Asian countries report mixed findings

regarding the impact of private tutoring. Suryadarma et al. (2006), in a study of

Indonesian fourth graders, do not find any significant effect of tutoring on mathematics

or dictation results. By contrast, Dang (2007) concludes that private tutoring has a

significant positive effect on the achievement of Vietnamese primary and secondary

students. Achievement, in this study, is construed as the student’s position in the school

academic ranking. An analysis by Ono (2007), applied to the ronin phenomenon (by

which Japanese students receive an additional year of private education in order to

prepare for college entrance examinations), shows how the probability of accessing an

elite university is positively affected by this additional education. Ono’s study,

however, is limited by the fact that only a small set of variables referring to family

background, personal and school characteristics is controlled for in the analysis.

13
Finally, mention should be made of the empirical analysis carried out by Banerjee et al.

(2007) of private tutoring in India in which, through a randomized experiment, the

authors conclude that tutoring has a significant positive effect on achievement.

2.7 Empirical Literature on the Effect of Private Tutoring on Outcomes

Empirical studies have found positive effects of private tutoring on students’

educational outcomes. Stevenson and Baker (1992) investigated whether the

participation in high school shadow education increased the likelihood of university

attendance in Japan. Overall, they found that students who reported that they have

participated in certain types of shadow education during high school years showed a

higher probability of attending universities in their first year following graduation from

high school. For students in the first year out of high school, practice examinations and

correspondence courses improved the probability of entering college by 16 percent and

25 percent, respectively, whereas having a private tutor significantly reduced this

probability, which reflects the remedial character of this form of private tutoring in

Japan. In addition, after-school classes had only a small and insignificant effect on

attendance, probably because students in better high schools who tend to be high-

performing use their high school’s after-school program. For students in the second

year out of high school, attending special tutoring school increased the probability of

entering college by 80 percent. However, using the logistic regression, Stevenson and

Baker (1992) failed to remove the bias caused by selectivity of private tutoring

participants. In addition, the student academic performance variable used in all

regression models is problematic because it is likely to be endogenous, which means

that it is correlated with unobserved student innate ability or motivation.

14
2.2 PREVIOUS RESEARCHES

A study by SU-JUNG (2013) examined how changes in time invested in private

tutoring and academic achievement influenced each other through a multivariate latent

growth model. The study identified not only how changes in the private tutoring

experience exerted a direct influence on changes in academic achievement, but also

measures what kind of changes in private tutoring and academic achievement had

emerged over time. The detailed study results are as follows. First, the analysis of time

invested in private tutoring showed that the higher the grades, the greater were the

amount of time invested in private tutoring in the case of Korean language study. On

the other hand, the results showed that in the case of English and mathematics, the

higher the grades, the lesser was the amount of time invested in private tutoring.

Second, private tutoring and academic achievement were all in a linear relationship.

Third, it was shown that the time invested in private tutoring and academic achievement

exerted a negative influence on each other according to the passage of time.

A study by Suleman (2013) explored the effects of private tuition on the

academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school level.

Fifty students of class 09 were selected as sample of the study. Sample students were

divided into two groups i.e. control group and experimental group by equating them on

the basis of their previous knowledge in subject of mathematics as determined through

a pre-test. Each group was composed of 25 students. Students of the experimental group

were engaged in tuition for two hours after school time. The study was experimental in

nature therefore, “The pre-test-post-test Equivalent Groups Design” was used for the

collection of data. Statistical tools i.e. the mean, standard deviation and differences of

means were computed for each group. Significance of difference between the mean

scores of both the experimental and control groups on the variable of pre-test and post

15
test scores was tested at 0.05 levels by applying t-test. After statistical analysis of the

data, the researchers concluded that there is significant positive effect of private tuition

on the academic achievement of students in subject of mathematics at secondary school

level. Based on the findings, it was recommended that parents should arrange private

tuition for their children to move up their achievement level in subject of mathematics.

Ünal (2010) estimated the effect of private tutoring (dersane) in Turkey in 15-

year-old students with parents in four occupational categories. Analyzing PISA (2006)

data, found that the effect of private tutoring in math was relatively strong for all four

occupational strata: one hour of tutoring is worth between 12 and 15 points on the math

achievement test, and this return to investment is constant across types. Berberoğlu

(2014) also investigated the effectiveness of private tutoring in Turkey by providing

some background information on the two major national examinations and three

different kinds of tutoring. The study described how it analysed whether attending

private tutoring centres (PTCs) enhances Turkish students’ academic performance. By

way of multiple linear regression analysis, their study sought to evaluate whether the

impact of private tutoring varies in different subject areas, taking into account several

student-related characteristics such as family and academic backgrounds as well as

interest in and perception of academic success. In terms of subject areas, the results

indicate that while private tutoring does have a positive impact on academic

performance in mathematics and Turkish language, this is not the case in natural

sciences. However, as evidenced by the effect sizes, these impacts are rather small

compared to the impacts of other variables such as interest in and perception of

academic success, high school graduation fields of study, high school cumulative grade

point average (CGPA), parental education and students’ sociocultural background.

While the authors point out that more research on the impact of further important

16
variables needs to be done, their view is that school seems to be an important factor for

determining students’ academic performance.

(2013) conducted a study to identify the students” perception of the

effectiveness of the supplementary tutoring relative to mainstream schooling. In this

study cluster sampling technique used to select the sample of the study. Two classes

were selected from each grade and conduct interview randomly from the participants.

Mori (2015) conducted a study to identify the factors that effects the students’

participation in the supplementary tutoring in the United State. Three research questions

about supplementary tutoring on students’ mathematics. in this study PISSA sample

included 150 schools 35 students were selected from each school from each country

and two countries were included in the study.

Burberoglu (2014) studied the impact of high school students’ private tutoring

on their academic performances in the higher education Entrance Examinations. The

results showed that the private tutoring does have positive effect On students academic

performance in mathematics, there two factors involve to pass the Higher Education

Examination, the students interest, characteristics and perception of the success. The

second is students subject combination track is important for the success.

Conformt (2014) studied the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement,

during practical assessment s, of the tutors and tutees. The sample of this study is the

final year science students. The results showed that there was significantly great

academic achievement compared students that were tutored and the group of peer that

were not tutored. This study demonstrates that peer tutoring can enhance the

development of achievement of practical skills and achievements of both tutors and

tutees during practical assessment.

17
 Guill (2014) conducted a study on effectiveness of private tutoring on

mathematics with regard to subjective and objective indicators of academic

achievement. This study analyzed research questions to found, does private tutoring

improve students’ academic achievements from their parents’ point of view and their

own point of view. Does private tutoring improve students’ marks and grades in the test

at school.

Kilonozo (2014) Conducted a study to investigate the influence of private

tuition on standard eight pupils’ academic achievement. This study employed

descriptive design. This study utilized the both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

The finding of this study is the all private tuitions and home tuitions influence the

pupils’ academic achievements. The study found that the home-based tuition great

influence on the pupils then the school-based tuition. This study also found that the

private tuition influence only few pupils who take home tuition or private tuition.

A conclusion can be drawn from the studied literature that to find out the effect

of private tutoring on the academic achievements, correlational studies were conducted.

However, there is a vast literature available on the impact of private tutoring on students

of secondary school mathematics. No evidence was found that this type of study has

been done in context of Physics students at secondary level. Moreover, this study will

be first of its kind to be conducted in Muzaffarabad Division of Azad Jammu and

Kashmir. To conduct the study, firstly a pilot test will be administered to draw two

groups from the sample. One group will be taken having students who take private

tutoring of physics either as home tuition or in private tuition centres. Another group

will be taken having students who do not take any private tuition of physics during off

instruction hours. Their results of physics in previous will be compared.

18
REFERENCES

Assad, R. & El-Badawy, A. (2004). Private and group tutoring in Egypt: When is the gender
inequality. Paper presented at the workshop on Gender, Work, and Family in the
Middle East and North Africa.
Baker, D. P., Akiba, M., LeTendre, G. K., & Wiseman, A. W. (2001). Worldwide Shadow
Education: Outside-School Learning, Institutional Quality of Schooling, and Cross-
National Mathematics Achievement. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis,
23(1), 1-17.
Bray, M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for
planners. Fundamentals of Educational Planning, No.61. Paris: UNESCO
International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
Buchmann, C. (1999). The state and schooling in Kenya: Historical development and
current challenges. Africa Today, 46(1), 95-116. doi:10.1353/at.2003.0072
Dang, H. (2007a). The Determinants and Impact of Private Tutoring Classes in Vietnam.
(Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Minnesota, Minnesota.
---. (2007b). The Determinants and Impact of Private Tutoring Classes in Vietnam.
Economics of Education Review, 26(6), 684-699.
Hanushek, E. (1986). The Economics of Schooling: Production and Efficiency in Public
Schools. Journal of Economic Literature, 24, 1141-1171.
Kim, M. (2003). Private institute education: Competition and anxiety of the South Korean
middle class. The International Conference on Education Research. Seoul, Korea.
Kim, S. and Lee, J. (2010). Private Tutoring and Demand for Education in South Korea.
Economic Development and Cultural Change, 58(2), 259-296.
Lee, J., & Hong, S. (2001). Public Education vs. Private Education: Choice and Equality
of Korean Education. Retrieved from
http://cepri.kdischool.ac.kr/kor/data/research/2001_1.hwp
Pindyck, R. & Rubinfeld, D. (2000). Microeconomics. New York: Macmillan.
Rohlen, T. & LeTendre, G. (1996). Teaching and learning in Japan. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Stevenson, D. L. & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow education and allocation in formal
schooling: transition to university in Japan. American Journal of sociology, 97(6),
1639-57.
Silova, I. & Bray, M. (2006). The hidden marketplace: Private tutoring in former socialist
countries. In Silova, Iveta, Virginija Budiene and Mark Bray. (Eds). Education in
a Hidden Marketplace: Monitoring of Private Tutoring. New York: Open Society
Institute.
Sweeting, A. (1983). Hong Kong. In R. M. Thomas & T. W. Postlethwaite (Eds.),
Schooling in East Asia: Forces of change (pp. 272-297). New York: Pergamon.
Tansel, A. & Bircan, F. (2006). Demand for Education in Turkey: A Tobit Analysis of
Private Tutoring Expenditures. Economics of Education Review, 25(3), 303-313.

19