Rheologically Stable, Nontoxic,
HighĆTemperature, WaterĆBased
Drilling Fluid
Julianne ElwardĆBerry, SPE, Exxon Production Research Co., and J.B. Darby, SPE, Exxon Co. U.S.A.
Summary
An exceptionally stable, high-temperature, water-based drilling
fluid has been developed based on a fundamental redesign of drill-
ing fluid components and functions, while still using commercially
available materials. Rheological stability was characterized by ex-
tensive Fann 50C low-shear-rate viscosity vs. temperature studies
and supporting viscoelastic rheological data. The fluid has been
used in both offshore and land applications, at temperatures as high
as 420°F and densities as high as 15.5 lbm/gal.
Introduction
Oil-based or selected synthetic drilling fluids are traditionally se-
lected when drilling wells with bottomhole temperatures between
300 and 500°F because they are stable throughout this temperature
range, resulting in consistent and predictable fluid properties with
minimum treatment and operating costs.
In certain instances, however, environmental, logistical, or cost
considerations make water-based fluids desirable even in the high-
temperature environment. This paper describes laboratory develop-
ment and subsequent field experience that enabled the effective use
of a water-based fluid in Exxon’s drilling operations at Mobile Bay,
as well as in other drilling operations. Mobile Bay operations com-
prise a deep, sour-dry-gas objective in the Norphlet aeolian sand-
stone, located in a series of periodic crested dunes below 21,000 ft
and at temperatures typically at or above 400°F.
Technical Challenges
The technical challenges facing the development of a water-based
drilling-fluid system for hot, acid-gas reservoirs include temperature-
induced gelation, contamination from saline or hard-brine influxes,
the presence of CO2 and H2S in formation fluids, and environmental
compatibility. Because a description of these challenges and a brief
history of water-based drilling-fluid technology were contained in an
earlier review article,1 no further discussion follows.
Temperature-induced gelation occurs with drilling fluids that rely
on bentonite clay for both rheological and filtration control. At tem-
peratures above 250°F, slurries of bentonite begin to thicken cata-
strophically. On average, when a trip is made out of a deep, high-tem-
perature well, the fluid left on bottom will be so excessively thickened
when it is pumped to the surface (“bottoms-up”) that extensive circu-
lating and conditioning and discarding of several hundred barrels of
the bottoms-up portion of the fluid are usually required. The funnel
viscosity (FV) will typically be well over 100 sec/qt. As an example
of this gelation phenomenon, Fig. 1 contains the fluid properties of
a Mobile Bay drilling fluid based on traditional clay/lignosulfonate/
modified-lignite technology (CLS-ML). In Fig. 1, the bottoms-up
properties were consistently elevated compared to circulating proper-
ties, with a measured FV of 136 sec/qt.
Contaminants are a particular problem with deep, high-tempera-
ture wells. There is greater potential for contamination because of
the number of days that a particular interval is open, because of slow
drilling rate, and because of the nature of the older fractured forma-
tions. Saline or hard-brine influxes may occur in many limestone
formations of heterogeneous permeability. Occasional salt stringers
may also be encountered in deep sections. In Mobile Bay, in particu-
Copyright 1997 Society of Petroleum Engineers
Original SPE manuscript received for review 6 July 1993. Paper peer approved 9 June 1997.
Paper (SPE 24589) first presented at the 1992 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Ex-
hibition held in Washington, D.C., 4–7 October.
158
lar, wells may experience hard-brine influxes, both in the intermedi-
ate section (near 16,000 ft) and in the production hole [near total
depth (TD)]. In addition, there exists a strong susceptibility for car-
bonate contamination of drilling fluid at high temperature, both
from external CO2 influxes from acid-gas intervals and from in-situ-
generated CO2 caused by product degradation, particularly with lig-
nite-containing materials.2 Flocculation-controlled rheology and
highly-flocculated filter cakes are the response of traditional fresh-
water, high-temperature fluids to carbonates.
WBHT (WaterĆBased, HighĆTemperature) Fluid
We report the development in the laboratory and the application in
the field of a water-based drilling fluid (WBHT)3 that eliminates the
problem of bentonite flocculation. Fig. 2 contains a comparison of
bottoms-up properties of a WBHT field sample from a Mobile Bay
well, taken at a similar depth and density as the CLS-ML example
in Fig. 1. The lack of gelation during a trip is evident.
Based on extensive laboratory data, WBHT appears to be applic-
able for wells with temperatures to 475°F at densities up to
"16 lbm/gal, and up to 400°F at higher density. Field applications
so far have been limited to two regimes: 420°F with 12.5 lbm/gal
fluid and 370°F with 15.5 lbm/gal fluid. In addition, WBHT has
been shown to be very stable in the presence of high levels of salinity
and hardness, and relatively insensitive to carbonate contamination.
Laboratory Development
On the basis of a review of available drilling-fluid technology, rheo-
logical control appeared to be the most difficult challenge for high-
temperature fluid development. Several new temperature-stable,
high-temperature filtration control (HTFC) polymers, which pro-
vided suitable filtration control, had appeared on the market.4-8 To
provide thermal stability at the fundamental or colloid particle level,
the search for a high-temperature deflocculant that would solve the
gelation and flocculation problem was abandoned as a solution.
Instead, a fluid was designed that was rheologically-stable without
the aid of deflocculants, yet would still tolerate 6 to 8 vol% drilled
solids. The WBHT fluid employed a low concentration of bentonite
clay and a minimum number of other additives, each with a clearly
defined function.
To simulate long-term fluid performance in a hot hole, an exten-
sive study was made with the Fann 50C rheometer of low-shear-rate
effective viscosity (typically at 60 rev/min or 100 seconds–1) vs.
temperature, particularly after hot-roll aging at anticipated bottom-
hole temperature. The laboratory rule of thumb for these curves was
that an effective viscosity (at 100 seconds–1) between 50 cp and
100 cp would be acceptable.
Principles. The working hypothesis for the fluid design was that
temperature-induced dispersion of clays in the fluid was responsible
for system instability. A fundamentally stable fluid must be de-
signed to take advantage of this phenomenon, not to fight it. With
this in mind, a logical three-part solution to the high-temperature
rheology problem resulted, as outlined below.
1. Select the clay concentration for the bottom of the hole to pro-
vide sufficient suspension and carrying capacity after aging at the
bottom of the hole during a trip. Clay slurries thicken substantially
with increasing temperature.
2. Add a complementary viscosifier to provide carrying capacity
at the surface as well as constant rheology throughout the tempera-
SPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997
Fig. 1—Rheology profile of WBHT components and WBHT drill-
ing fluid.
ture cycle. The complementary viscosifier thins with increasing
temperature.
3. Intentionally add electrolyte such as NaCl to the fluid to miti-
gate the temperature-induced dispersion of the drilled solids. Also,
de-emphasize the use of deflocculants, as they only mask the addi-
tion of too much clay.
As a corollary, use any of the available temperature-stable filtration-
control materials, particularly noncarbonate generating products.
Rheology Profile and Viscoelastic Character. Fig. 3 contains sep-
arate Fann 50C traces of a slurry of API nontreated bentonite and of
a complementary temperature-stable cellulosic viscosifier (CV).
Fig. 3 also contains the trace for a WBHT drilling-fluid formulation,
when the polymer and bentonite are combined in specified propor-
tions. Clay thickening is balanced by polymer thinning. The WBHT
fluid is designed to maintain a flat rheological profile between 50-
and 100-cp viscosity over an extended temperature range, coupled
with minimal hysteresis between the heating and cooling curves,
which are both plotted. The balance of the electrostatic interactions
of fine charged colloidal clays with the van der Waals interactions
of the larger uncharged CV particles (average particle size of 30 to
40 µm) appears to create a uniform viscosifying network in the fluid.
One measure of such a network is the ability of the fluid to exhibit
viscoelastic character, characterized by the elastic modulus, GȀ.
This property is determined by measuring the in-phase component
of stress (GȀ) with a small-amplitude oscillatory rheometer.9 A fluid
has significant elastic character—that is, solid-like character that
contributes to suspension and carrying capacity—when GȀ exhibits
minimal sensitivity to oscillatory frequency over some range, and
when GȀ is greater than GȀȀ (the viscous modulus). The response of
a purely elastic solid would be independent of frequency, while the
response of a purely viscous liquid would increase monotonically
with increasing frequency. Viscoelastic drilling fluids exhibit a re-
sponse intermediate to these limits, with frequency-independent
elastic behavior evident over a limited frequency range. The WBHT
fluid exhibited such frequency independence over a range centered
around 10 rad/sec.
Salinity Control. The third principle, concerning salt, requires
elaboration because bentonite clay traditionally performs poorly at
elevated salinity. Although fresh water is preferred for drilling
fluids containing clay and fresh water is required to prehydrate ben-
tonite, the freshwater medium at very high temperature is too reac-
tive an environment for the fine drilled solids that accumulate in the
fluid and undergo temperature-induced dispersion. As salinity of
the aqueous medium is increased, the electrostatic double-layer that
was created around the clay packets when they were hydrated is
compressed, resulting in a reduced tendency to disperse.10
A minimum electrolyte level is required for this effect, with sea-
water or similar salt concentration being optimum. In laboratory
SPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997
Fig. 2—Properties of WBHT drilling fluid in Mobile Bay.
Fig. 3—Gel strengths with depth for WBHT fluid.
tests the fluid was not rheologically stable in fresh water, but rather
exhibited optimum stability in NaCl with a chloride range of 4,000
to 30,000 mg/L. This benefit from moderate electrolyte content
would, of course, not be expected to prevail with ever-increasing sa-
linity or in the presence of excessive hardness from divalent cations.
At some relatively high concentrations, the tendency of salt to se-
verely flocculate and aggregate the clay and polymer additives
would generate a less stable formulation.
The use of a controlled salinity range has two additional advan-
tages. First, the sensitivity of the fluid to changes in salinity is re-
duced. A large range of salinity is tolerated, once the rheological
network has been established. CV itself is salt tolerant and the clay
content is not large enough to contribute to severe flocculation. A
moderate range of hardness can also be tolerated, depending upon
the filtration-control polymer selected. Second, a controlled-salini-
ty range, which could be comprised of KCl, can be used to provide
some level of shale inhibition, although deep, hot wells are typically
drilled through older, less water-sensitive formations.
Although some reliance on deflocculants is required for high-
density fluids (density greater than about 16 lbm/gal), minimal use
of temperature-stable deflocculants is indicated for moderate-den-
sity formulations. In high-density fluids, deflocculants are needed
to neutralize the charge that exists on the surface of weight material
such as barite. Although this surface-charge density is small, inter-
actions between the many particles in hundreds of pounds of weight
material impact rheology and must be controlled.
Fluid-Loss Control. Optimization of filtration control depends
upon both performance and economics because the available HTFC
polymers are expensive. However, any specified high-temperature,
high-pressure (HTHP) filtration rate can be attained, provided gela-
159
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
TABLE 1—FILTER-CAKE PROPERTIES

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
CLS-ML WBHT
Measurement Fluid Fluid

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
API filter cake, in. 3/
32
2/
32

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
API filtrate volume, cm3/30 min 7.20 10.7

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
HTHP filter cake, in. 14/ 5/
32 32
HTHP filter-cake description thick, thin, slick,

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
mushy smooth
HTHP filtrate volume, cm3/30 min 24 40

tion is avoided. Several fluid-loss polymers were investigated and

determined to be compatible with the WBHT fluid. Noncarbonate-
generating filtration-control products were preferred, although the
WBHT is more tolerant of carbonate contamination because of the
lower optimized clay content.
The most significant feature of filtration rate studies with WBHT,
however, concerns the filter cake, not the filtrate volume. Table 1
compares data for American Petroleum Inst. (API) and HTHP filter
cakes from laboratory-prepared WBHT and CLS-ML formulations.
The HTHP filter-cake thickness for WBHT consistently measured
5/ to 6/ in., while the traditional CLS-ML fluid measured 14/
32 32 32
to 16/32 in. On the other hand, the filtrate volume of the WBHT fluid
was 40 cm3 per 30 minutes, while that of the traditional CLS-ML
fluid was a lower 24 cm3 per 30 minutes. By combining both mea- Fig. 4—WBHT properties after 6 days waiting on weather.
surements to determine filter-cake permeability,11 the WBHT
permeability was calculated to be about one-half that of the CLS- strictions, field toxicity data were essential for documentation and
ML filter cake. for future potential discharge applications. The current U.S. EPA
The reduced clay content and resultant reduction in flocculation of permit limit in the Gulf of Mexico is 30,000 ppm suspended particu-
the WBHT fluid controls the thin, low-permeability filter cake. If late phase (SPP) for a 96-hour LC50 (lethal concentration to 50%
drilling concerns were the primary motivation for filtration control, population) with the brine shrimp, mysidopsis bahia. Test results of
a very thin, slick filter cake is obtained from the WBHT fluid, despite both laboratory formulations and field samples were typically in the
a higher measured filtrate volume. Filtrate volume can be reduced, of
400,000 to 600,000 ppm SPP range.
course, with additional HTFC polymer as the reservoir is penetrated.

Formulation. On the basis of the principles described above, a for-
mulation was developed (Table 2) that provided a constant profile
of low-shear-rate rheology with temperature from flowline temper-
ature to 475°F, as shown in Fig. 3. Very few products were required,
all commercially available and of minimal toxicity. These products
include clay, cellulose viscosifier, salt, caustic, and water-soluble
synthetic polymers. The specific role of each product is also de-
scribed in Table 2.
The WBHT fluid relies on the combined clay-CV network de-
scribed above to provide efficient carrying capacity and suspension
through a wide temperature range. Since only enough viscosifier is
added to the fluid, minimal deflocculant is needed. Furthermore,
without gelation problems, HTFC products are able to function effi-
ciently. Because only one or two additives control a particular prop-
erty, simple treatment guidelines result.
Toxicity. Aquatic bioassay tests using the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) protocol were performed with laboratory
samples after hot-roll aging overnight at the test temperature of at
least 400°F, as well as later field samples. Although drilling in Ala-
bama state waters in Mobile Bay is governed by zero-discharge re-
Field Experience
Two field applications are described: offshore Mobile Bay and an
east Texas wildcat well. The deep, sour-gas Norphlet formation in
Mobile Bay was the site of the first field test and of many subsequent
applications. In the east Texas wildcat a high-temperature water-
based fluid was selected because of the potential for lost returns in
an exploration environment.
Drilling-Fluid Preparation and Conversion. For the first field test
the WBHT fluid was prepared in a service company’s drilling-fluid
plant and transported to the rig, where it was totally displaced into
the hole at the beginning of the production interval. Bottomhole
static temperature at that point was near 300°F. This was a build-
and-hold directional well with more than 5,000 ft of throw at a
measured depth of nearly 23,000 ft. Bottomhole static temperature
was near 400°F.
For later wells in Mobile Bay, a protocol was developed to gradu-
ally convert from “spud mud” to the WBHT fluid while drilling,
with the goal of completing the conversion by "15,000 ft or 300°F.
This is the current, more cost-effective strategy.

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
TABLE 2—WBHT FORMULATION

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
Product Quantity Range Function

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
API nontreated bentonite 3 to 12 lbm/bbl Primary: suspension
Secondary: carrying capacity

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
Cellulose viscosifier 1 to 3 lbm/bbl Primary: carrying capacity

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
Secondary: suspension
Salt (NaCl) or seawater 3,000 to 30,000 mg/L chloride Primary: control of temperature-induced downhole

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
dispersion

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
High-temperature synthetic filtration polymer <2 to 6 lbm/bbl Primary: filtration control, with available bentonite
Caustic (no lime) pH 9.5 to 11.0 Primary: alkalinity control

ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
High-temperature deflocculant (optional) 0 to 0.5 lbm/bbl, as needed Primary: fluid homogeneity during trips
Defoamers (optional) As needed Primary: minimize surface foam

160 SPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997


Fig. 5—Properties of traditional CLS-ML drilling fluid in Mobile
Bay.
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
TABLE 3—DAILY TREATMENT RATES
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
CLS-ML WBHT
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
Additive Fluid Fluid
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
Bulk barite, lbm/B-D 10 7 where all drilling wastes, including discarded drilling fluid, must be
Clay, lbm/B-D 1.2 0.15
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
CV, lbm/B-D — 0.13
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
Caustic/lime, lbm/B-D 0.4 0.14
Deflocculant, lbm/B-D 0.3 0.05
ÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁÁ
Filtration-control product, lbm/B-D 1 0.2
Water added, B/D 300 170
For the east Texas wildcat, the WBHT fluid was blended from a
saturated salt/CV polymer fluid (used to drill an upper massive salt
section) and an earlier freshwater fluid that had been gradually con-
verted to a reduced-clay fluid with addition of CV. Barite and fresh-
water were added to reach the programmed density at a chloride lev-
el of 30,000 mg/L.
WBHT Stability. Fig. 4 contains a plot of the three gel-strength
measurements made on flowline samples during the first field test,
on days when drilling ahead. Two features were notable, namely the
consistency of the values within the guidelines established, and the
similarity of the 10-minute and 30-minute gel-strength values, de-
spite the high-temperature environment.
The difference between the 10-minute and 30-minute values re-
mained, on average, about 5 lbm/100 ft2, despite a temperature in-
crease of nearly 100°F over the interval. Such a small variation be-
tween 10-minute and 30-minute gel strengths was indicative of
nonprogressive gel-strength development, an advantage during
long trips in a deep, hot hole. Using an empirical gelation model,11
the equilibrium gel strength (or limiting value at infinite time) was
calculated to be 24 lbm/100 ft2, from the average set of gel-strength
values of 5, 15, and 20 lbm/100 ft2 (for the 10-second, 10-minute,
and 30-minute tests). Such a moderate value was validated opera-
tionally by the low pressures required to break circulation after trips.
The flat rheological profile of the laboratory formulation was an
indicator of consistent fluid stability in the field at high temperature.
Fann 50C traces of weekly field samples were monitored through-
out the well, and were found to reproduce that of the laboratory for-
mulation previously shown in Fig. 3. The low-shear-rate viscosity
remained primarily between 50 and 100 cp.
One extreme challenge to WBHT-fluid stability occurred when
the bit was off-bottom with no circulation for 6 days during hurri-
cane abandonment. Fig. 5 summarizes the bottoms-up data after this
lengthy static period. Although the bottoms-up sample equilibrated
at 385°F while below 21,000 ft, the properties were still very similar
to the earlier circulating-fluid properties. The FV of 50 sec/qt on
bottoms-up was similar to the original out sample from 6 days earli-
SPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997
Fig. 6—Salinity insensitivity of WBHT properties.
er. These data can be compared with those in Fig. 1 to illustrate the
stability of WBHT.
As a result of the high-temperature stability of the WBHT fluid,
virtually no excess drilling fluid was discarded because of high-tem-
perature gelation after trips. This result was of particular economic
importance in an area governed by zero-discharge restrictions,
transported away from the well location for treatment and disposal
at an onshore site.13
Treatment Requirements. The fluid stability described above was
achieved without extensive daily treatment. In Table 3, daily treat-
ment rate data are summarized for the 19,000- to 21,000-ft drilling
interval for two Mobile Bay area wells with similar 11-lbm/gal-den-
sity drilling fluids. The earlier well used a traditional CLS-ML fluid
while the latter well was the first WBHT field test. Both wells had
3,000-bbl drilling-fluid systems, and were drilled with the same
jackup rig, although several years apart. Major product categories
are listed to facilitate the comparison. Data are reported as pounds
per barrel per day, averaged over the several thousand foot intervals.
Review of Table 3 indicates that the WBHT fluid required a treat-
ment level much lower than the traditional CLS-ML fluid. Clay re-
quirements were less by a factor of eight (0.15 vs. 1.2 lbm/B-D), de-
flocculants by a factor of six (0.05 vs. 0.3 lbm/B-D), and filtration
control additives by a factor of five (0.2 vs. 1.0 lbm/B-D). HTHP
filtration-rate specifications were relaxed further from the original
specifications of the first field test, because no hole problems were
experienced, and the cost of treating to a tight HTHP specification
was not necessary when drilling through low-permeability hard
rock. This optimized plan resulted in even lower treatment levels.
The comparison of water consumption also indicated lower daily
treatment and dilution requirements.
Salinity Tolerance. The salinity range of the Mobile Bay wells
(10,000 to 29,000 mg/L chloride) was within the laboratory-deter-
mined optimum range. Such was not the case for the east Texas wild-
cat, where unexpected salt stringers were drilled continuously. The
WBHT fluid that was originally designed for a 30,000 mg/L chlo-
ride level eventually became a 120,000 mg/L chloride drilling
fluid.14 Fig. 6 contains a plot of the measured chloride level in the
WBHT fluid, along with yield point (YP), 30-minute gel strength,
and HTHP filtration-rate data. Despite the sharp increase in salinity
after 17,200 ft, there was no noticeable effect on fluid rheological
parameters and only minimal effect on HTHP filtration rate. These
HTHP specifications were relaxed once the salinity rose, since no
hole problems were experienced and the treatment cost was consid-
ered unnecessary.
It was concluded that drilling this well with a conventional CLS-
ML fluid—in which salinity increased from 25,000 to 120,000
mg/L chloride concurrently with a temperature increase from 310
to 370°F—would have resulted in severe problems with tempera-
161
ture-induced gelation and flocculation. Neither of these occurred
with the WBHT drilling fluid.
Economic Considerations. On a per-barrel basis, WBHT costs U.S.
$30 to $50, depending upon HTFC polymer selected. Although these
figures are more expensive than some water-based fluids, they are
substantially less than oil-based fluids. The cost of using WBHT im-
proved from well to well in Mobile Bay drilling, as confidence in its
superior stability developed and the introduction of in-situ conversion
and relaxed fluid-loss guidelines occurred. Interval costs were re-
duced to one-third to one-half of the first well, for both vertical and
directional wells, during the development drilling program.
Conclusions
1. A drilling fluid, referred to as WBHT, was designed from fun-
damental principles, based on the hypothesis that temperature-in-
duced dispersion of clay solids was the root cause of high-tempera-
ture water-based drilling-fluid instability.
2. A stable low-shear-rate rheology vs. temperature profile was
confirmed by both laboratory tests and field experience at tempera-
tures up to 425°F and fluid densities from 11 to 15.5 lbm/gal.
3. Three fundamental criteria were employed in the WBHT-fluid
design. Within this framework, select commercially available, low-
toxicity components were required.
4. Contrary to traditional drilling fluid practice, the WBHT fluid
was designed for a saline medium, to reduce high-temperature ef-
fects and to desensitize the fluid to salinity variation while drilling.
5. On the basis of several successful field tests, the WBHT drill-
ing fluid could be prepared in situ while drilling, beginning with a
“spud mud.”
6. WBHT-fluid stability was maintained with a significantly
lower treatment rate than traditional CLS-ML fluids, and registered
somewhat lower interval cost on a cost per foot basis than oil-based
fluids, indicative of its similar stability.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the management of Exxon Production Re-
search Co. and Exxon Co. U.S.A. for permission to publish this pa-
per. We also thank David Carbajal, who performed the laboratory
experiments; T.W. Chow and L.V. McIntire of Rice U., who per-
formed the viscoelastic measurements; and the Exxon Co. U.S.A.
and service company operating personnel who assisted with the ear-
ly field tests of the WBHT system.
References
1. Plank, Johann P.: “Water-Based Muds Using Synthetic Polymers Devel-
oped for High Temperature Drilling,” Oil & Gas Journal (2 March
1992) 40.
2. Frost, C.M., Hoeppner, J.J., and Fowkes, W.W.: “Source and Some Gen-
eral Properties of Humic Acids from Lignitic Materials,” Journal of
Chemical and Engineering Data 4 (1959) 173–176.
3. Elward-Berry, J.: “Rheologically-Stable Water-Based High-Tempera-
ture Drilling Fluid,” US Patent 5,179,076, issued January 12, 1993; US
Patent 5,244,877, issued 14 September 1993.
4. Son, A.J., Ballard, T.M., and Loftin, R.E.: “Temperature-Stable Poly-
meric Fluid-Loss Reducer Tolerant to High Electrolyte Contamina-
tion,” SPEDE (September 1987) 209.
5. Perricone, A.C., Enright, D.P., and Lucas, J.M.: “Vinyl-Sulfonate Copo-
lymers for High-Temperature Filtration Control of Water-Base Muds,”
SPEDE (October 1986).
162
6. Hille, M.: “Vinylsulfonate/Vinylamide Co-polymers in Drilling Fluids
for Deep, High-Temperature Wells,” SPE 13558 (April 1985).
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1992 AADE Technology Conference.
SI Metric Conversion Factors
bbl 1.589 873 E*01 +m3
cp 1.0* E*03 +Pa@s
ft 3.048* E*01 +m
ft2 9.290 304* E*02 +m2
°F (°F*32)/1.8 +°C
gal 3.785 412 E*03 +m3
in. 2.54* E)00 +cm
lbm 4.535 924 E*01 +kg
*Conversion factor is exact. SPEDC
Julianne ElwardĆBerry is a senior research specialist in the Drilling
and Completions Div. of Exxon Production Research Co. in
Houston. She joined Exxon in 1980, and has worked since 1986
in drilling research, where her interests include development of
environmentally compatible drilling and completion fluids for
challenging well applications. She holds BS and MS degrees in
chemistry from the U. of California, Berkeley, and a PhD degree
in physical chemistry from the U. of Wisconsin, Madison. John B.
Darby is a division staff engineer in the Exxon U.S.A. Drilling OrgaĆ
nization of Exxon Co. U.S.A. He joined Exxon in 1973 and has
been in drilling engineering since 1977. He has worked on deep
highĆpressure drilling and snubbing operations in Louisiana and
offshore Gulf of Mexico, as well as on deep sourĆgas drilling opĆ
erations in the Tuscaloosa trend of Louisiana; south Jackson,
Mississippi area; and Mobile Bay area of Alabama. He holds a
BS degree in civil engineering from the U. of Minnesota.
Photograph is unavailable.
SPE Drilling & Completion, September 1997