Geography 8 E

1 The Solar System
The objective of this unit is to study

the composition and functions of the
Solar System.
F o r F re e Di str i buti o n 1
Have you carefully observed the sun, moon and the other celestial bodies in the
sky? There is evidence that man had shown an interest in knowing about them
since ancient times. At present man can explore more than what is visible to
the naked eye, as scientists have invented modern equipment to observe the sky.
It has been discovered that there are eight planets, shapeless pieces of planets
called asteroids, various celestial bodies such as dwarf planets and natural
satellites revolving around the sun. When all these things are taken together;
we consider them as a system. This is called the solar system. It is believed
that the solar system has been formed 4600 million years ago, by combining
dust and particles of gases together.
When we observe the night sky with our naked

The sun is a star that
eye we can see a multitude of stars. Stars are
emits light and heat.
celestial bodies that emit light and heat. Thus they
are sources of energy. They can be seen shining or
twinkling in the night sky.
However, the other celestial bodies such as planets, natural satellites and
asteroids, though they do not emit light, are visible in the night sky as they
reflect the sunlight. They are seen with a "Monotonous light that does not
twinkle".
Observe the cloudless, clearly visible night sky and get the above information
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Composition of the Solar System
The Sun and the other celestial bodies which are bound by the gravitational force
of the sun belongs to the Solar System.
The celestial bodies found in the Solar System are listed below,
² The Sun, the main body of the Solar System
² Planets, the largest celestial bodies
² Smaller planets or Dwarf planets
² Natural Satellites of the planets
² Millions of other rock particles or debris
» Asteroids
» Comets
» Meteoroids
Eris
Satu
rn
Jupit
Astero
er
Neptune
Pluto
id Belt
Uranus
M a rs
Venus
Earth
Mercury
Su n
Makemake
Ceres
Comet
Fig. 1.1 - Solar system

Source - http://www.retecool.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/solarsystem-21.jpg
The sun
The sun is the main source that provides energy for the existence of life on
Earth. The sun lies at the centre of the solar system. A massive amount of heat is
generated at the core of the sun as a result of fusion and thermonuclear reactions.
The temperature of the centre of the sun is about 15,000,0000C (15 million 0C)
while the surface temperature is about 60000C.
Several important facts about the sun are given below;

² It holds 99.86 percent of the total mass of the solar system or the substances
that belong to the whole system.
² Its extent is 109 times of the diameter of the Earth. The diameter is 1.4 million
kilometres.
² It is a source of energy and it provides energy and heat to all the planets in the
solar system.
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would burst out from the sun.
² The sun revolves around its own axis. The time taken for one rotation is 25.4
Earth days.
Fig. 1.2 - The sun Fig. 1.3 - the Coronal loops that gives out
Source - http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.21/02/2016 heat on the sun's crust
Activities
1. Name the types celestial bodies that belong to the solar system.
2. Explain how planets and stars differ from each other.
3. :ULWHIRXUVSHFL¿FIHDWXUHVRIWKHVXQ
4. Prepare an article for a wall paper about the sun, using information from
books, newspapers, magazines and the internet.

Planets
The solar system consists of 8 main planets.
Spherical objects that They are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars,
are moving on orbits Jupiter, Saturn Uranus, and Neptune. Between
around the sun are Mars and Jupiter there is a belt of asteroids.
called planets. Planets have been divided into two categories
as interior planets and outer planets.
² Inner planets
The planets located between the sun and the belt of asteroids are known as inner
planets. (Study Fig. 1.1) They are composed of rocks made up of silicate and metal
materials. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars belong to the category of interior planets.
² Outer planets
The planets located out of the belt of asteroids are known as outer planets.
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn Uranus, and Neptune belong to this category. They are
basically gaseous in composition. (Hydrogen and Helium)
Mercury
² Mercury is the closest planet to the sun.
² It is the smallest member of the solar

system. It is a bit larger than the moon,
satellite of the Earth in size.
² The temperature is extremely hot due to

its close proximity to the Sun and slow
rotation. The surface temperature is
about 1670C.
² There are craters on the surface due to Fig. 1.4 - Mercury

volcanic eruptions. Source - www.windows2universe.org/ 13.02.2016
² It has no atmosphere. Therefore, these is a
high risk of falling asteroids and meteors.
² Mercury has no satellites.
Venus
² Venus is the second planet according to
the distance, from the Sun.
² It is the closest planet to the Earth.
² It is the planet with the highest surface
temperature (4640C).
² It is somewhat smaller than the Earth in
size.
² It is the planet most clearly visible in the Fig. 1.5 Venus
night sky. Source - www.windows2unverse. 13.02.2016
² The surface of the planet is covered by a thick layer of clouds. Therefore, its
VXUIDFHFDQQRWEHVHHQZHOO,WLVYLVLEOHEULJKWO\LQWKHVN\GXHWRWKHUHÀHFWLRQ
of the Sun’s rays by this thick layer of clouds.
² The rotation from East to West is a special feature of this planet.
² The main gas found in this planet is Carbon dioxide (96%).
² During one period of the year it is clearly visible in the eastern sky before
dawn and during another period, in the western sky after sunset. Hence, Venus
is called the morning star as well as the evening star.
² Venus has no satellites.
Earth
² Earth is the planet which we live on.
² It is the third planet from the sun in
distance and it is the largest among the
inner planets.
² It is visible as an attractive celestial
object in blue when it is seen from
Fig. 1.6 - The Earth a photography
outer space. Hence, it is called the "blue taken from Appollo 17
planet".
Source - www.windows2universe.
² According to the information found upto
date, it is the only planet with life.
² Existence of water, congenial atmospheric composition and the gravitational
power are the reasons for the existence of life on Earth.
² The Earth has one natural satellite called the moon.
Mars
² Mars is the fourth planet from the sun
according to distance.
² It is called the Red Planet since it is
visible as a reddish object in the night
sky.
² We can see Mars with the naked eye
as it is the second closest planet to the
Earth.
² There is a thin atmosphere and carbon
dioxide is the predominant gas. Fig. 1.7 - Mars
Source - www.windows2universe.org
² Mars has two satellites called Phobos /13.02.2016
and Deimos.
Jupiter
Fig. -1.8 - Jupiter Fig. 1.9 - A close photo shot of the surface
Sorce - http://nssdc.gsfc. of Jupiter
Source - www.windows2universe.org/our_so
² Outer planets begin with Jupiter.
² $PRQJWKHSODQHWV-XSLWHULVWKH¿IWKSODQHWIURPWKHVXQDQGLWLVWKHODUJHVW
planet in the solar system.
² The diameter of the Jupiter is 1,42,984km and it is 10 times than the diameter
of the Earth.
² The regions like black stripes as well as bright regions can be seen on the
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² Among the planets in the solar system, Jupiter has the highest gravitational
force.
² Jupiter has the largest number of natural satellites. According to the
observations upto date, it has 67 natural satellites.
Saturn
² Saturn is the sixth planet from the
Sun.
² It is the second largest planet and it is

about nine times the size of the Earth.
² Saturn has an attractive set of "rings "

around it. These rings are formed of
ice particles of different sizes.
² Saturn has 62 natural satellites. Fig. 1.10 - Saturn
Source - Image courtesy of NASA, ESA, J. Clarke
(Boston University), and Z. Levay (STScI
Uranus
² Uranus is the seventh planet from the
Sun.
² It is the third largest planet in the solar
system.
² It has been found that Uranus too has
a thin set of rings around it.
² It has 27 satellites. Fig. 1.11 - Uranus
Source - http://s3.amazonaws.com/kidz-
world_photo

Neptune
² Neptune is the eighth planet and the
one farthest from the sun.
² It is seen in blue.
² It is four times larger than the Earth.
² Neptune is extremely cold due to the
long distance from the sun.
² It has 14 natural satellites. Fig. 1.12 - Neptune
Facts about planets in brief

Table 1.1 - Facts about planets
Planet Diameter Rotation P eriod of Mean No of
period Revolution temperature satellites
km Hours Days Celsius
Mercury 4879 1407.6 88 167 0
Venus 12104 5832.5 224.75 464 0
Earth 12756 23.9 365.2 15 1
Mars 6792 24.6 687 -65 2
Jupiter 142984 9.9 4331 -110 67
Saturn 120536 15.7 10747 -140 62
Uranus 51118 17.2 30589 -195 27
Neptune 49528 16.1 59800 -200 14
Source - http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet 21/02/2016
Rotates from east to west.
Activities
1. Name the planets in the solar system in the order from the Sun.
2. Categorize them as interior and outer planets.
3. Present the composition of the solar system in a diagram.
Assignment
1. Prepare a brochure including information about planets.
2. Using materials that could be easily found, prepare a model of the solar
system with Teacher's advice.
Dwarf Planets
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¿YH SODQHWV KDYH EHHQ LGHQWL¿HG DV GZDUI SODQHWV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO $VWURQRPLFDO
$VVRFLDWLRQ+RZHYHU6FLHQWLVWVEHOLHYHWKDWWKHUHPD\EHPRUHWKDQ¿YH
7KH¿QHGZDUISODQHWVDUHVKRZQLQWKHSLFWXUHEHORZ
Eris
Makemake
Haumea
Ceres
Pluto
Fig. 1.13 - Dwarf Planets

Source - http://www.the-dialogue.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/ensystem
Natural satellites
The small celestial objects that orbit around planets are called natural satellites. So
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8 that belong to the dwarf planets.

Table 1.2 - Number of natural satellites in the solar system
Planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptun
No. of
satellites 0 0 1 2 67 62 27 14
Dwarf
planets
Ceres Pluto Haumea Make make Eris
No. of
satellites 0 5 2 0 1
Asteroids
Asteroids are usually considered as
fragments of rock left over when forming
the solar system. They are formed with
hard rocks and they are of different shapes
and sizes. More than millions of asteroids
can be found between the orbits of Mars
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Fig. 1.14 - Asteroids

Activities
1. State the number of natural satellites with the planets in the solar system ac-
cording to the information found so far.
2. Describe what dwarf planets are and name the dwarf planets found so far.
Beliefs connected with the solar system

Different beliefs exist in the society regarding the impacts of
the Sun, the Moon and the other planets on the lives of people.
Several such beliefs are mentioned below.
² Worshiping Sun and the Moon considering them as gods.
² Emergence of the Astrology on the basis of the movements of the Sun and the
Moon and other planets.
² Holding ritualistic activities known as 'Shanthe karma', due to the belief that
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² The preparation of the horoscope on the basis of the locations of planets at the
time of the birth and prevalence of the belief in society that many things are
GHWHUPLQHGE\WKHLQÀXHQFHRISODQHWV
² There are various ceremonies on the basis of the Sun and the Moon. (Thaipongal
festival, Sinhala and Hindu New Year festival and Ramalan Festival)
Fig. 1.15 - Sinhala new year festival Fig. 1.16 - Tamil new year festival
² 2UJDQL]DWLRQ RI WUDGLWLRQDO IDUPLQJ DFWLYLWLHV EDVHG RQ WKH LQÀXHQFH RI WKH
Sun and the Moon. Accordingly, they have the belief that they would reap a
good harvest, receive rain on time and have less harm from pests.
² Considering the direction when collecting the parts of herbal plants used for
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7KRXJKLWLVGLI¿FXOWWRFRPHWRDGH¿QLWHFRQFOXVLRQDERXWWKHVHEHOLHIVWKH\KDYH
a practical importance.

New knowledge about the solar system
² The early man used to explore the unseen universe even at the time that science
was not developed. New information about the solar system and the universe is
continuously added due to the explorations and observations done for a long period
since past.
² *DOLOHR*DOLOHHXVHGWHOHVFRSHWRREVHUYHWKHXQLYHUVHIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHLQ
AC. He was able to reveal more information about the universe not known so far,
through the observation conduct using his telescope.
Fig. 1.17 - Galileo Galilee Fig. 1.18 - Telescope prepared

by Galileo Galilee
Person like Claudius Ptolemy, Nicolas Copernicus, Johannes Kepler and Isaac
Newton too were enthusiastic in finding information about the universe in the
past.
The launching of an artificial satellite to explore information about space in

1957 A.D by USSR (Russia) is an important event in the history. Thereafter
United States of America established the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) and launched several satellites. Images taken by these
satellites have helped in broadening the knowledge about the universe.
It was believed that the solar system has nine planets, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto including our living planet Earth. But, in 2006
the International Astronomical Institute declared Pluto as a dwarf planet. Hence,
here after it is considered that the solar system has eight planets. It was accepted
that there are celestial objects called dwarf planets among other planets that belong
to the solar system.
Recently, the "Caltech" Astronomical Institute in U.S.A. revealed information

about a ninth planet which is ten times larger than the Earth. This planet has been
named as Planet 9. But, it has not been proved yet as a member of the solar system.
As a result of continuous exploratory activities, the knowledge about the space is

changing day by day.
Fig. 1.19 - Neil Armstrong's Fig. 1.20 - Launching of a rocket

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Activities
1. Prepare a list of the modern discoveries about the solar system.
2. Mention four beliefs found in the Sri Lankan society on the basis of the sun
and the moon.
3. State some other beliefs that you are aware of and have heard from your
elders which are not included in the text book.

Sources
² https://i.ytimg.com/vi/LWMHIkIFwEQ/maxresdefault.jpg
² www.windows2universe.org/our_solar_system/solar_system.html 13.02.2016
² http://s3.amazonaws.com/kidzworld_photo/images/201562/b96379d2-a7f2-
4f01-a2d2-83712931c25e/uranus.jpg
² http://www.the-dialogue.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/en10-exploring-
the-solar-system_06.jpg
² Image courtesy of NASA, ESA, J. Clarke (Boston University), and Z. Levay

(STScI
² http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet 21/02/2016
² https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Moons_of_solar_sys
tem_v7.jpg
Glossary
² Solar system fi!r.%y uKav,h bõ°ØÖz öuõSv
² Rotation N%uKh _ÇØ]
² Revolution mßN%uKh _ØÖøP
² Planet .%yf,dalh ÷PõÒ
² Asteroids .%yl G›PØPÒ
² Natural Satellites Wm .%yhka E£÷PõÒPÒ
² Dwarf planets jduk .%yhka ]Ö÷PõÒPÒ
² Gravitational force .=re;ajdl¾IK n,h Dº¨¦ Âø\
² Thermonuclear reactions ;dm kHIaál m%;sl%shd öÁ¨£ Aq«Ò uõUP®
² Mass ialkaOh voÄ
² Solar storms iQ¾h l=Kdgq bõ°ØÖ¨¦¯À
² Axis wlaIh Aa_
² Inner Planets wNHka;r .%yf,dal APU ÷PõÒPÒ
² Outer planets ndysr .%yf,dal ¦ÓU ÷PõÒPÒ
² Ice particles whsia wxY= £ÛzxoUøPPÒ
² $UWL¿FLDOVDWHOOLWHV lD;%su pkaøsld ö\¯ØøPU ÷PõÒ
² Satellite images pkaøsld m%;sìïn ö\´©v¨£i©[PÒ
² Astrology fcHda;s¾ úoHdj ®ÁõÚ\õìvµ

Uniqueness of the Earth as a
2 habitat of living beings
The objective of this unit is to find facts

about the uniqueness of the planet Earth
in the solar system.
17
F o r F re e Di str i buti o n
Basic information about the earth
Distance Duration of Speed of the Time for Speed of the
from the sun rotation rotation revolution revolution
150 million 23 hours and 11.2 km per 29.8 for a

365 days
km 56 minutes second and 6 hours second
The Earth is a spherical object of 510 million square km. Though the Earth is
considered as a globe the equatorial diameter is longer by 42 km, than the polar
diameter. Therefore, it is not considered as a mathematical sphere.
² Equatorial diameter 12756 km

² Polar diameter 12714 km
Location of the Earth in the solar system

In unit 1 you have studied that the Earth, our home planet, is the third planet from the Sun.
Study the following facts too.
² The average surface temperature on Mercury, located very close to the sun,
is 1670 C.
² The average surface temperature on Venus, the second planet from the sun,
is 4640C.
² The average surface temperature on the Earth is 150C.

18
² The average surface temperature on Neptune, the farthest planet from the
sun is -2250C.
Source - http://www.planetary.org/explore 22/03/2016
Temperature on the Earth is not as high as on the Mercury and Venus or not as low as
on the Neptune as it is located in a middle position in the solar system.
² Presence of an atmosphere with favourable gases as well as water

vapour congenial to living beings.
² Existence of water.
² Prevalence of a intermediate temperature.
² Occurrence of rotation and revolution.
² Existence of gravitational force.
Due to these factors the Earth has become a habitat for living beings. According to
the experiments conducted so far, the Earth is the only planet with life. The Earth
contains distinct features that cannot be compared to another planet in the solar
system; hence, it occupies a unique place in the solar system.
Latitudes and Longitudes

A network of imaginary lines has been drawn on the model globe to identify any
place located on the Earth. These lines are named as latitudes and longitudes.
Latitudes
The imaginary line that separates the Northern and North
Pole
Southern Hemispheres of the geographical globe is
the 00 latitude known as the Equator. The latitudes that
run parallel to the equator in the Northern Hemisphere
up to 900GHJUHHVDUHLGHQWL¿HGDV1RUWKHUQODWLWXGHV
and the latitudes that run parallel to the equator up to
900GHJUHHVLQ6RXWKHUQ+HPLVSKHUHDUHLGHQWL¿HGDV
Southern latitudes respectively. The circles of latitudes
gradually become smaller when they are extended up
to Northern and Southern poles. Ultimately it becomes Fig. 2.1 - Latitudes
a point in the South and North poles. (Fig. 2.1) 19
Longitudes North
Pole
The imaginary lines on the geographical globe that
extend from the North pole to the South pole are called
longitudes. The 00 degree longitude that runs across the
city of Greenwich in England, is called the Greenwich
Meridian. The longitudes that are located up to 1800 Equator
east from the Greenwich meridian are called Eastern
South Pole
longitudes and those that extend up to 1800 West are called
Fig. 2.2 - Longitude
west longitudes. But the longitude 1800 is considered as
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Rotation of the Earth West

North Pole East
The movement of the Earth around its own axis is called
rotation. The Earth rotates from West to East on this
imaginary axis that runs from North pole to South pole.
The Earth's axis tilts at an angle of 23.5° to the orbital Rotating Axis
plane.
Due to the rotation of the Earth, we see as if the Sun is South Pole
rises in the East and sets in the West. The Earth takes 23
hours and 56 minutes for a complete rotation around its Fig. 2.3 - The Earth axis
and rotation
axis, but the duration of a day of the Earth is considered
as 24 hours.
Occurrence of day and night
The rotation of the Earth results in

the occurrence of day and night and
regional differences in time.
While, rotating, the half of the Earth

that receives sun light has day time. The
Fig. 2.4 - Occurrence of day and night other side that does not get sunlight has
night time.
20
According to the location of the longitudes, the Morning 6.00
time too differs in different places in the world. Texas (U.S.A)
2EVHUYH ¿JXUH WR XQGHUVWDQG KRZ WLPH
changes in the world. When the time is 12.00 Midday Midnight
noon on a longitude, the sun is overhead. The England New Zealand
time is 12.00 midnight on its opposite longitude.
The sun rises early in the countries located in the
eastern part of the world as a result of the rotation Evening 6.00
of the Earth from the West to East and the Sun Bangladesh
Fig. 2.5 – how different places of the
rises later in the Western countries.
world are affected by the location of
longitudes.
When the Earth rotates around its axis once, it Source - http://www.nauticed.org/
moves 3600 during 24 hours. Within one hour it
moves 150 of longitude and requires 4 minutes to
travel 1. Hence the time between 2 longitudes defers by 4 minutes. Accordingly, the
difference of the time for 150 degrees is one hour.
Standard time
The earth has been divided into 24 regions or time zones on the basis of longitudes for
the use of internationally accepted standard time. Usually, a standard time is used in each
of the zones. But, there are large countries that extend over several time zones in the
world. The United States of America, Canada, Australia and Russia and some of them.
The time zones of these countries the time relevant to the particular time zone is used.
(See map 2.1)
Map 2.1 - Standard time zones

21
It is considered that the day breaks at 12.00 midnight. The Greenwich meridian
is considered as the 00 longitude. From the Greenwich Meridian 150 longitudes
towards East one hour is added to the time and one hour is reduced towards 150
longitudes to the west from the Greenwich meridian. The International Date Line is
set based on 1800 longitude and there is one day difference either side of this line.
For example, suppose that the time at Greenwich city is 12.00 noon on a Monday.
From there, the time increases regularly towards the east till night. On this occasion,
the time in Sri Lanka is 5.30 pm. In the same manner, the time decreases regularly
up to morning from Greenwich city towards the west. On this occasion the time in
Texas State in the United States of America is 6.00 am. According to this change,
the time on International Date Line is 12.00 midnight.
Here, there is another factor to be understood. According to the above example,

when moving towards 1800 east from 00 longitude, the time is 12.00 midnight on
Monday. When moving towards 1800 west the time is 12.00 daybreak. So, the
morning has just dawned or 12.00 midnight on Monday. Therefore, when crossing
the 1800 longitude, the clocks should be adjusted accordingly as there is a difference
of one day on either side of it.
If 1800 longitude is taken directly, 11 runs over some countries. Then, there is
a problem in using the date. Hence, International Date Line (I.D.L) is marked
avoiding the countries based on 1800 longitude. (Map 2.1)
Activities
1. 6WDWHWKHVSHFL¿FIHDWXUHVRIWKH(DUWKWKDWFDXVHGWKHIRUPDWLRQDQGVXVWDLQDELOLW\
of life.
2. “The location of the Earth related to the Sun is the main factor that caused the
existence of life”. Explain this.
3. State what is known as the rotation of the Earth and write its two main results.
4. State the time zone Sri Lanka belongs to and mention the difference of the time
in relation to the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
5. Name three countries that observe the Local Standard time
22
Revolution of the Earth
The movement of the Earth around the sun is called revolution, and its path is
called the orbit. The Earth takes 365 days and 6 hours for a complete revolution. A
duration of 365 days is considered as one year. We get a year with 366 days after
every four years adding the balance of 6 hours. Such a year is called a leap year.
Since the Earth rotates on 23.50 inclined axis, the occurrence of over head sun in
revolution differs by longitudes during the particular periods of the year. Therefore,
the length of the day and night changes according to the location of latitudes and
seasonal changes occur in upper latitudinal areas of the Earth.
Equinoxes
The Sun is overhead on the 21st of March and on the 23rd of September on the
Equator. The Sun being overhead on the equator on the 21st March is called the vernal
equinox or spring equinox. Its overhead on the equator on the 23rd of September is
called the autumnal or fall equinox.
Solstices
The Sun is overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn on 22nd December and it is called
the winter solstice. The Sun is overhead on the Tropic of Cancer on the 21st of June
and it is called the summer solstice.
Spring Equinox
21st March
Summer Solstice Winter Solstice

21st June 22nd December
Autumn Equinox
23rd September
Fig 2.7 - Revolution and seasons

23
During the time equinoxes or when the Sun is overhead on the equator on the 21st of
March and on the 23rd of September, the day and night times are equal to 12 hours
through all latitudes of the Earth.
When the Sun is overhead on the Tropic of Cancer on June 21st the daytime is
longer in the Northern hemisphere while the day in Southern hemisphere is shorter.
The Southern hemisphere has a longer daytime when the Sun is overhead on the
Tropic of Capricorn on 22nd December and the daytime of the northern hemisphere
is shorter. Both the solstices and the equinoxes are directly connected with the
seasons of the year.
According to the changes of the sun being overhead on different latitudes at different
time periods of the year, seasons occur with different climatic features. Differences
in seasons can be clearly visible in the areas located away from tropics.
There are four main seasons on Earth
² Summer
In countries which have seasonal changes,

the highest temperature is recorded during
summer and the daytime is longer. Since
the temperature is very high during this
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the other living beings. In the Northern
hemisphere summer sets in June and in the
southern hemisphere it falls in December.
Fig. 2.7 - Summer
² Autumn
During autumn the temperature decreases

gradually. Autumn sets in for the countries
located in the Northern hemisphere
during the month of September and for
the countries in the Southern hemisphere
in March. Due to the gradual decrease of
temperature the leaves begin to fall. Thus
it is also called the 'Fall'. Fig. 2.8 - Autumn
24
² Winter
When the temperature decreases to

its maximum level, winter sets in the
countries of the Northern hemisphere in
December, and for the countries in the
Southern hemisphere in June. During
this time there is a longer period of
night. The leaves completely fall off
the trees. Snow falls in many areas and Fig. 2.9 - Winter
human activities are limited to a great
extent.
² Spring
The temperature gradually rises up at the

end of winter and spring sets in for the
Northern Hemisphere in March and in
the Southern hemisphere in September.
During this period snow and ice begin to
melt. Tender leaves appear on dormant
WUHHVDQGÀRZHUVZLOOVWDUWWREORRPDQG
bear fruits. Fig. 2.10 - Spring
Activities
1. %ULHÀ\H[SODLQZKDWLVPHDQWE\WKHUHYROXWLRQRIWKH(DUWK
2. When the Sun revolves, the latitudes on which the Sun is overhead change in
each of the time periods. Complete the following table.
Date The Sun is overhead It is called
st
21 of March .............................. Spring equinox
21st of June .............................. ..............................
23rd of September Equator ..............................
23rd of September .............................. ..............................
3. Explain how a Leap Year occurs.
25
Gases
Table 2.1 - Composition of the gases in the
$VSHFL¿FIHDWXUHRIWKH(DUWKLVWKH earth’s atmosphere
availability of gases congenial for Type of the gas Volume as a
the existence of life. The part that percentage
consists of various gases is called the Nitrogen 78.09
atmosphere. The atmosphere is held Oxygen 20.95
by the Earth due to its gravitational
Argon 0.93
pull. Wind is the air in motion in the
Carbon dioxide 0.03
DWPRVSKHUHRUWKHQDWXUDOÀRZRIDLU
Ozone 0.00006
The main substances in the
Other gases Trace
atmospheric composition are gases
Source - Waugh David 2000, Geography An
while water vapour, dust and salt Integrated Approach
particles are also found.
Importance of the Atmosphere
² Air is the main factor for the existence of life.

² It retains water vapour and helps in maintaining the water cycle. It causes the
process of precipitation too.
² It controls the entry of harmful ultraviolet rays of solar radiation through the
ozone layer located in the upper part of the atmosphere.
² It controls the falling of meteors to the Earth as they get burnt due to friction
against the atmosphere.
² It controls the temperature on the surface of the Earth.
Activities
1. Name the four most abundant gases in the atmosphere in the ascending order.
2. :ULWH¿YHEHQH¿WVRIWKHDWPRVSKHUH
3. 0HQWLRQ¿YHKXPDQDFWLYLWLHVWKDWFDXVHGIRUZDWHUSROOXWLRQ
26
Water
Water is found on Earth in different forms.
71% of the total land area or 3/4 of the
² Liquid - Water
Earth is covered by water. This is a
² Solid - Ice
special feature that can be seen on the
² Gas - Water vapour
Earth related to the other planets in the
solar system.
Distribution of water on earth

Oceans and seas 97%
Fig. 1.13 - Water in its liquid and solid ice caps and snow 1.75%
forms (Ice) Ground water 1.75%
Fresh water 0.5%
This water circulates cyclically between the land and the atmosphere. This is called
'the water cycle', which is also known as the 'hydrological cycle'(H2O cycle)
Importance of water,
² It is an essential factor for the existence of living beings.
² For domestic purposes. (washing, cleaning ,bathing and cooking)
² For all agricultural activities.(crop cultivation and livestock farming)
² For various industries.
² For transportation. (marine and inland waters)
² For generating electricity.(hydro-electricity)
² For recreational activities (water sports)
Activities
1. Name the three main ways in which water exists on the Earth.
2. Explain the distribution of water on the Earth using the chart in the lesson.
3. Explain four uses of water.
4. Name three human activities which cause water pollution
27
Sources
² http://www.planetary.org/explore/space-topics/compare/planetary-facts.html
22/03/2016
² http://www.nauticed.org/sailing- 27/2/2016
² http://c.tadst.com/gfx/timezonemapdateline.jpg 22/02/2016
Glossary
² Surface temperature u;=msg WIaK;ajh ÷©Ø£µ¨¦ öÁ¨£{ø»
² Latitudes wlaIdxY AP»õ[S
² Longitudes foaYdxY ö|mhõ[S
² Equator iulh ©zv¯ ÷Põk
² North pole W;a;r O%ejh Áh •øÚÄ
² South pole olaIsK O%ejh öuß•øÚÄ
² Orbital plane llaI ;,h JÊ[S £õøu
² Local time ia:dkSh fõ,dj K›h ÷|µ®
² Standard time iïu; fõ,dj {¯© ÷|µ®
² Equinox iQ¾h úIqjh £¸ÁPõ»®
² Solstice iQ¾h ksjD;a;sh `›¯ Pmhø©¨¦
² Tropic of Capricorn ulr ksj¾;kh ©PµU ÷Põk
² Tropic of Cancer l¾lgl ksj¾;kh PhPU ÷Põk
² Summer .%SIau$.sïydk iD;=j ÷Põøh Põ»®
² Autumn ir;a iD;=j Cø»²vº Põ»®
² Winter Ys;$isisr iD;=j SÎº Põ»®
² Spring jika; iD;=j Á\¢u Põ»®
² Water vapour c, jdIam }µõÂ
² Water/Hydrological cycle c, pl%h }›¯À Ámh®
² Ozone layer ´fidaka jdhq ia;rh K÷\õß £øh
² Ultra violet rays mdrcïnq, lsrK ¦Ó FuõUPvºPÒ
28
3 So uth Asi a
The objective of this unit is

to study the location and the
landscape of the South Asian
Region which has diverse
characteristics.
29
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ORFDWLRQRIWKH6RXWK$VLDQUHJLRQIURPPDS
Nansh
an Mo
5604 untain
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4548 Kush arako ountains
ram Kunlun M
ns
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and
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unt Tibetan
ai
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ou
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an
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India
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dy
ari
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tern
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ins
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it
ra
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lk
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cape comorin
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>4800 m Gu anna Dondra Head
M
3000 - 4800 m
1800 - 3000 m Maldives
1200 - 1800 m
600 - 1200 m
Indian Ocean
300 - 600 m
150 - 300 m
0 - 150 m
Map 3.1 : The location of the South Asian region.
Source - Philip's Modern School Atlas
30
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I n d
i a n O c e a n
Fig. 3.2 - The absolute location of the South Asian Region

Source- Philip's Modern School Atlas
31
Fig. 3.3 - South Asian countries and the capital cities
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Activity
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region ?
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Countries
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Landscape of the South Asian Region

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UHJLRQ:KHQZHVWXG\WKHGLIIHUHQW
total landscape created on it as a result
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be divided into 6 categories based
RQVSHFL¿FIHDWXUHVRIWKHP
32
I. Mountain landscape II. Valley landscape
III. Coastal landscape IV. Rural landscape
V. Industrial and urban landscape VI. Desert landscape
Fig. 3.1 - Different landscapes in South Asian region

33
Mountain landscape
([FHSW 0DOGLYHV DOO WKH RWKHU FRXQWULHV LQ WKH 6RXWK$VLDQ UHJLRQ KDYH IHDWXUHV
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range.
Map 3.4 - Himalayan Mountain Range

34 Source - Philip's Modern School Atlas
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also trade in goods and carry heavy loads
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Fig. 3.2 - Live style in Mountainous region
weaving and spinning thread.
35
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Activity
&RPSOHWHWKHIROORZLQJWDEOH
Topographical features (WKQLF Food 2FFXSDWLRQV Cultivated

RIWKH+LPDOD\DV *URXSV crops
Valley Landscape
Afghanistan
A landscape which is highly China
GLIIHUHQW WR WKH PRXQWDLQRXV

landscape can be seen in Sa
New Delhi ra
G
YDOOH\V6RPHVLJQL¿FDQWYDOOH\
a da
Nepal
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Bhutan
n g
m
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un
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landscapes in the South Asian Ka
d Bangladesh
a
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Myanmar
(Burma)
² ,QGLD -
7KH*DQJHV9DOOH\
² 3DNLVWDQ
The ,QGXV5LYHU9DOOH\
² 6UL/DQND Sri Lanka
7KH0DKDZHOLDQG.HODQL Map 3.6 - Valley landscape of South Asia

5LYHU9DOOH\V Source - KWWS¿OHVSURNHUDODFRPPDSVLQGLD
36
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this region. This valley begins in the
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landscapes can be seen on either side of the
valley. This is considered as one of the
largest river plains in the world. Fig 3.3 - The landscape of River Ganges
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the physical features.
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found in this valley.
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languages and follow different religions
here clearly enhance diversity of the
cultural landscape along the river valley. Fig. 3.4 - Cultural features in 5LYHU*DQJHV
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agricultural crops are cultivated in the rich alluvial soils throughout the river
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conditions that prevail in the region affect the crops. Cultivation of the crops has
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37
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Activities
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,,0DUNDQGQDPHIRXUWULEXWDULHVRIWKH*DQJHV
([SODLQ ZLWK WKUHH IDFWRUV KRZ WKH ODQGVFDSH RI WKH *DQJHV YDOOH\ GLIIHUV
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Coastal landscape
South Asian region has a very long coastal belt. All the South Asian countries except
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in these two countries are exceptional.
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landscape.
38
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HQYLURQPHQWIRU¿VKHULHV
Making
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Making dried
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Jobs related
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industry
Production Other
of Canned by-products
¿VK
Oil, sea shells

and ornaments
Fig. 3.5 - Tourist attraction in the costal belt
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listed as follows.
39
Natural harbours comprised Shallow sea with coral reefs
of well protected lagoons and
isolated islands. Bio diversity in the
coastal belt
Many places for

sun basking
Sandy beaches
with scenic beauty.
Clear waters
Hotel facilities that draw
tourist attraction
Fig. 3.6 - Tourist attraction in the costal belt
7RXULVPKDVH[SDQGHGDORQJWKHFRDVWDOEHOWLQ6UL/DQNDWRR6RXWKHUQDQG(DVWHUQ
FRDVWDOEHOWVDUHLPSRUWDQWDVWKH\DWWUDFWPRUHWRXULVWV0DQ\IDFLOLWLHVDUHSURYLGHG
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² Jobs in hotels ² Tourist guides

² 6DOHRIIDQF\LWHPV ² Trade
² Ayurvedic centers ² Jobs in harbours.
40
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Fig. 3.7 - Biodiversity of the coastal landscape
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unacceptable behaviour can be given as the unfavourable results of such activities.
41
Activities
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Rural Landscape
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according to different patterns. There are industries based on agricultural products.
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Fig. 3.8 - Paddy cultivation is done in the dry zone
42
Chena cultivation is done in highlands
where paddy cannot be cultivated. A chena
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vegetables and fruits are grown in chenas
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The rural landscape in the South Asian

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Industrial and Urban landscape

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43
² 9HU\ODUJHSRSXODWLRQLVFRQFHQWUDWHG
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Fig. 3.10 - A scene of Mumbai
² +LJKGLXUQDOPRYHPHQWRISHRSOH
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in the world.
Fig. 3.11 - various facets of an urban landscape
44
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of Deccan.
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Activities
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Desert Landscape
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Thar desert is a distinct feature in the landscape of South Asia. The following
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45
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available.
Fig. 3.12 - A desert landscape Fig. 3.13 - A desert oasis landscape
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relevant to the landscapes.
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Flat land
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46
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cultivated.
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/DQGVFDSHLQ6RXWK$VLD
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landscape landscape landscape landscape
,QGXVWULDODQG Desert landscape

urban landscape
47
Source
² KWWS¿OHVSURNHUDODFRPPDSVLQGLDPDS¿OHVULYHUJDQJHVPDSMSJ
² Philip's Modern School Atlas
² KWWSZZZIUHHZRUOGPDSVQHWDVLDVRXWKDVLDVRXWKDVLDSK\VLFDOPDSMSJ
Glossary
² /DQGVFDSH N+ o¾Ykh {»z÷uõØÓ®

² Relative location idfmalaI msysàu \õº£ø©Ä
² Absolute location ksrfmalaI msysàu uÛ¯ø©Ä
² 3K\VLFDOODQGVFDSH fN!;sl N+ o¾Ykh ö£ÍwP {»z÷uõØÓ®
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² 9DOOH\ODQGVFDSH ksïk N+ o¾Ykh £ÒÍzuõUS {»z÷uõØÓ®
² 8QGXODWLQJODQG /<s ìu öuõh{» {»z÷uõØÓ®
² %UDLGHGULYHUV yevm¿ .x.dj ¤ßÛ¯ BÖ
² 5LYHUPHDQGHU .x oÕr BØÖ ª¯õ¢uº
² Flood plains msgdr ;eks öÁÒÍa\©öÁÎ
² Costal landscape fjr<nv N+ o¾Ykh Pøµ÷¯õµ {»z÷uõØÓ®
² Atols wf;d¿ £ÁÍ¨£õøÓPÒ
² Tourist attraction ixpdrl wdl¾IK _ØÖ»õ £¯oPøÍ DºUS®
² Rural landscapes .%dóh N+ o¾Yk Qµõª¯ {»z÷uõØÓ®
² ,QGXVWULDOODQGVFDSHV ld¾ñl N+ o¾Yk øPzöuõÈÀ {»z÷uõØÓ®
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² 2DVHV lafIau N+ñ £õø» ÁÚa ÷\õø»
² Defrosting jkyrKh ®Í PõhõUP»
48
4 The Basic Features of 1: 50 000
Topographic Maps of Sri Lanka
This lesson offers an

opportunity to study several
basic features of 1: 50 000
topographic maps of Sri Lanka.
49
For Free Distribution
Various features on the Earth’s surface can be presented by maps. The features
formed by nature (Natural features) and features made by man (Man-made
features) are represented in topographic maps. Colours, letters and symbols
have been used to represent these features. These maps are very useful to have
a total understanding about the landscape. For that, the maps should be well
understood by reading them correctly.
Activity
² Some features that can be seen on the land are given below. Write them
under the correct heading in the table.
Mountain ranges. Main roads, Buildings, Rivers, Forests, Tanks,
Farmlands, Plains, Grasslands, Canals
Natural Features Man-made Features
The natural features seen on the land are known as physical features and man-made
features are known as cultural features.
The Scale and Largeness of the 1: 50 000 topographic maps of

Sri Lanka
The Survey Department of Sri Lanka began to prepare a map of Sri Lanka based
RQPHWULFXQLWVGXULQJWKH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHGHFDGH7KHVFDOHRIWKLVPDSLV
7KDWPHDQVRQHXQLWRQWKHPDSLVHTXDOWRVXFKXQLWV$FFRUGLQJO\
FPRQWRSRJUDSKLFPDSLVHTXDOWRFPNLORPHWUH$GLVWDQFH
50
RIRQHNLORPHWUHRQODQGLVVKRZQE\WZRFHQWLPHWUHVRQWKHWRSRJUDSKLF
map.The correct distance between two places on the map can be found using this
scale.
The length of Sri Lanka from Point Pedro in the North to Dondra Head in the South
is 432 km. The width of Sri Lnaka, from Colombo in the West to Sangamankanda
3RLQW LQ WKH (DVW LV NP 0DS ,I WKH ZKROH PDS RI 6UL /DQND LV GUDZQ
WRVFDOHWKH
VL]H RI LW ZLOO EH
Point Pedro
cm - that is (432×2)
LQ OHQJWK DQG FP
(224×2) in width.
$FFRUGLQJO\ WKH PDS
ZLOO EH P LQ
OHQJWK DQG P LQ
width. Drawing and
using such a map is
SUDFWLFDOO\ GLI¿FXOW
Hence, for the easy
DQG HI¿FLHQW XVH
432Km
topographic map of
Sri Lanka, has been
GLYLGHG LQWR SDUWV
Each part is known as Sangamankanda
a map sheet and each Point
Colombo 224Km
map sheet has been
given a name and a
sheet number.
Dondra Head
Map 4.1 - The length and the width of Sri Lanka

H[
Name of the map sheet - Kandy
1XPEHURIWKHPDSVKHHW
51
Map 4.2 - The map of Sri Lanka after dividing in into 92 map sheets
Activities
01' 1DPHPDSVKHHWV1RDQG1R
02' Study the map 4.2 and write the name and the sheet number of the map sheet
where your school is located.
03' Name with the sheet numbers, the adjoining maps of it'
1DPH¿YHPDSVKHHWVZLWKVKHHWQXPEHUVZKHUHDODUJHUDUHDLVFRYHUHGE\WKHRFHDQ
52
$ VHJPHQW IURP QXPEHU 0DWKDUD VKHHW RI WKH WRSRJUDSKLF PDS LV
GHSLFWHG EHORZ ,W LQFOXGHV :DOLJDPD ED\ DQG WKH DGMRLQLQJ DUHDV 7R VWXG\ WKH
LQIRUPDWLRQUHSUHVHQWHGRQWKHPDSXVHWKHNH\JLYHQLQ)LJ(YHU\WRSRJUDSKLFDO
map contains such a key.
Map 4.3 - Physical and cultural features - A Part of Matara Map

Source - Sri Lanka Survey Department
53
Fig. 4.1 - Key
54
Activities
What is the length and the width of the map 4.3 in centimetres?
2. &DOFXODWHWKHOHQJWKDQGWKHZLGWKLQNLORPHWUHVXVLQJVFDOH
Physical Features
The land is not the same everywhere. Features like mountain ranges, highlands,
plains, slopes, valleys and gaps can be seen on the land. This is termed 'relief'.
Contour lines are used to show such topographic features.
Contour lines
² 7KHOLQHVWKDWKDYHEHHQGUDZQRQPDSVMRLQLQJWKHSODFHVZLWKHTXDOKHLJKW
on land, are called contour lines.
² (YHU\FRQWRXUOLQHKDVDVSHFL¿FYDOXH
² 7KHLQWHUYDOEHWZHHQWZR&RQWRXUOLQHVLVHTXDO
² &RQWRXUOLQHLQWHUYDOLQWRSRJUDSKLFPDSVRI6UL/DQNDLVPHWUHV

Fig. 4.2 - Showing relief using contour lines
55
Topographic features are represented in maps using contour lines. Here, several
topographic features have been selected for the purpose of study.
² Mountain range ² Valley
² Conical hill ² Gap
² Spur
Mountain range
High land that spreads in narrow elongated shape is called a mountain range. There
may be several peaks on such a mountain range.
140
100
Fig. 4.3 - Mountain range Fig. 4.4 - Mountain range

shown by counter lines
Conical hill
$VPDOOKLJKODQGWKDWWDNHVWKHVKDSHRIDFRQHLQDÀDWODQGLVFDOOHGDFRQLFDOKLOO
Conical hill is represented on a map by the contour lines that spread in a circular shape.
0
12
0
10
Fig. 4.5 - Conical hill Fig. 4.6 - A conical hill

56
Spur
$ SDUW RI D KLJKODQG ZKLFK SURWUXGHV 36
0
towards a low land is known as a spur.
\
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Spur is represented in a map by the
9D
0
XU
contour lines that run in narrow elongated 34
6S
shape from the high land towards low
0
32
land.
0
Valley 30
Low land located between two high lands

Fig. 4.7 - Spur and Valley
LV D YDOOH\ 5LYHUV ÀRZ WKURXJK VRPH
valleys. They are called river valleys. When the contour lines extend pointing
WRZDUGVWKHKLJKODQGLQWKHPDSWKHYDOOH\FDQEHLGHQWL¿HG
Fig. 4.8 - Picture of a Spur Fig. 4.9 - Picture of a Valley
Gap
The low level opening located in highland or among the peaks of a mountain is
known as a gap.
ap
G
Fig. 4.10 - Gap shown by contour line Fig. 4.11 - Picture of a gap
57
Activity
)ROORZLQJWHDFKHU¶VLQVWUXFWLRQVGUDZWKHWRSRJUDSKLFIHDWXUHV\RXKDYHLGHQWL¿HG
E\FRQWRXUOLQHVDVVHSDUDWH¿JXUHV
Map 4.4 - Physical features represented in a topographic map
Map segment 4.4 shows how the topographic features you have studied are
UHSUHVHQWHGRQDPDS6WXG\WKHVHJPHQWRIWKHPDSDQGLGHQWLI\WKHP
58

Fig. 4.12 - Showing relief by contour lines
The topographical features can be seen in Sri Lanka have been shown in two
GLPHQVLRQVXVLQJFRQWRXUOLQHVLQWRSRJUDSKLFPDSV%\EXLOGLQJWKHP
three dimensionally, these features could be understood easily.
Activities
:LWKWKHKHOSRIWKHWHDFKHUEXLOG¿JXUHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOO\XVLQJFDUG
boards or some other suitable material.
2. 7KHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDO¿JXUHFDQEHEXLOWVHWWLQJWKHFDUGERDUGOD\HUVIURP
contour line to contour line as the height of the land rises.
Cultural Features
The cultural landscape has been built by man on the physical foundations. Hence
there is a close relationship between cultural feature shown and physical features
VKRZQLQDPDS+HUH\RXUDWWHQWLRQLVIRFXVHGRQVHYHUDOVHOHFWHGFXOWXUDO
features.
59
² $GPLQLVWUDWLYH%RXQGDULHV3URYLQFLDO'LVWULFW ² Main Roads
² Express ways ² Railway Lines
² ,UULJDWLRQ&KDQQHO ² Tanks
These cultural features have been shown in the maps by various symbols and colours.
These cultural features can be found by observing the key of the topographic map.
Administrative Boundaries
$PRQJ WKH DGPLQLVWUDWLYH ERXQGDULHV LQ 6UL /DQND 3URYLQFLDO DQG 'LVWULFW
boundaries are very important. These boundaries have been marked using red
symbol on maps.
Provincial Boundary
District Boundary
When these boundaries are delimitated, on most occasions the distribution of

rivers and mountain ranges has been considered.
Map. 4.5. - Administrative boundaries in a topographic map
60
Main Roads
Main roads are marked by red colour line margined by thin black colour lines
RQHLWKHUVLGHRILW7KH\DUHUHSUHVHQWHGLQWRSRJUDSKLFPDSVE\
$
W\SHURDGV
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$
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%
W\SHURDGVZLWKOHWWHU
%
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road number.
$
B
Express ways
Express ways were added to the road system of Sri Lanka recently. They will be
DGGHGWRWKHQHZWRSRJUDSKLFPDSVRIQHZHGLWLRQV
Railway Lines
,QWRSRJUDSKLFPDSVUDLOZD\OLQHVDUHPDUNHGLQEODFNFRORXU5DLOZD\VWDWLRQDQG
railway halt on railway line are shown by red colour symbols.
Railway station Railway
Tanks and Irrigation Canales
Tanks have been built to collect water on land.

Water from the tanks is supplied to the farmlands Tank bund
through irrigation canals. The tank bund is marked Irrigation
canals Tank
in brown and area of water is shown in blue in
WRSRJUDSKLFPDSV,UULJDWLRQFDQDOLVPDUNHGZLWK
a blue colour symbol.
61
Exercise 01
Draw the cultural features you have learnt using relevant colours and symbols.
Provincial boundary Main road
Railway line Tank
,UULJDWLRQFDQDO 'LVWULFWERXQGDU\
Exercise 02
K
J 120 A 101
C
100
A
95
99
B D
115
100
E F 90
0
0
10
12
88
H 112
120
G
100 119
Trace the contour line map shown above.

2. PFRQWRXUOLQHLVGUDZQKDOIFRPSOHWHLW
3. 0DUNWKHYDOXHVRIRWKHUFRQWRXUOLQHVIROORZLQJWKHPFRQWRXUOLQHLQWHUYDO
4. 6KDGHWKHODQGVDERYHPZLWKLQEURZQ
Name the topographic feature shown by C-D, E-F, G-H, J-K
Draw the road marked on the map using the correct colour.
7. Mark the provincial boundary along the river.
62
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64
65

Geography 8 E

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Geography 8 E

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1 The Solar System

The objective of this unit is to study

When we observe the night sky with our naked

2 For Free Distribution

Fig. 1.1 - Solar system

Several important facts about the sun are given below;

4 For Free Distribution

² It is the smallest member of the solar

² The temperature is extremely hot due to

² There are craters on the surface due to Fig. 1.4 - Mercury

² The Earth has one natural satellite called the moon.

² It is the second largest planet and it is

² Saturn has an attractive set of "rings "

8 For Free Distribution

Facts about planets in brief

Rotates from east to west.

Fig. 1.13 - Dwarf Planets

10 For Free Distribution

Fig. 1.14 - Asteroids

Beliefs connected with the solar system

² Worshiping Sun and the Moon considering them as gods.

12 For Free Distribution

Fig. 1.17 - Galileo Galilee Fig. 1.18 - Telescope prepared

The launching of an artificial satellite to explore information about space in

Recently, the "Caltech" Astronomical Institute in U.S.A. revealed information

As a result of continuous exploratory activities, the knowledge about the space is

Fig. 1.19 - Neil Armstrong's Fig. 1.20 - Launching of a rocket

14 For Free Distribution

² Image courtesy of NASA, ESA, J. Clarke (Boston University), and Z. Levay

16 For Free Distribution

The objective of this unit is to find facts

150 million 23 hours and 11.2 km per 29.8 for a

Source - http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet 21/02/2016

² Equatorial diameter 12756 km

Location of the Earth in the solar system

Study the following facts too.

² The average surface temperature on the Earth is 150C.

² Presence of an atmosphere with favourable gases as well as water

² Prevalence of a intermediate temperature.

² Occurrence of rotation and revolution.

² Existence of gravitational force.

Latitudes and Longitudes

Rotation of the Earth West

Occurrence of day and night

The rotation of the Earth results in

While, rotating, the half of the Earth

Map 2.1 - Standard time zones

Here, there is another factor to be understood. According to the above example,

Summer Solstice Winter Solstice

Fig 2.7 - Revolution and seasons

There are four main seasons on Earth

In countries which have seasonal changes,

During autumn the temperature decreases

When the temperature decreases to

The temperature gradually rises up at the

Importance of the Atmosphere

² Air is the main factor for the existence of life.

Distribution of water on earth

The objective of this unit is

Lakshadweep Island Nicobar Islands

Fig. 3.2 - The absolute location of the South Asian Region

Landscape of the South Asian Region

III. Coastal landscape IV. Rural landscape

V. Industrial and urban landscape VI. Desert landscape

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Trace the contour line map shown above.

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