A.

Cheese

Of unknown origin; perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- "to ferment, become sour" (source also of
Prakrit chasi "buttermilk;" Old Church Slavonic kvasu "leaven; fermented drink," kyselu "sour," -kyseti "to turn
sour;" Czech kysati "to turn sour, rot;" Sanskrit kvathati "boils, seethes;" Gothic hwaþjan "foam"). But de Vaan
writes, "no etymology can be found which does not require some poorly-founded assumptions," and suggests a
loan-word. Also compare fromage. Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius "broth, sauce,
juice."

Earliest references would be to compressed curds of milk used as food; pressed or molded cheeses with rinds
are from 14c. Transferred to other cheese-like substances by 1530s. As a photographer's word to make subjects
hold a smile, it is attested from 1930, but in a reminiscence of schoolboy days, which suggests an earlier use.
Probably for the forced smile involved in making the -ee- sound.

B. Camp

1520s, "place where an army lodges temporarily," from French camp, in this sense from Italian campo, from
Latin campus"open field, level space," especially "open space for military exercise" (see campus).

The direct descendant of Latin campus in French is champ "a field." The Latin word had been taken up in early West
Germanic as *kampo-z and appeared originally in Old English as camp "contest, battle, fight, war." This word was
obsolete by mid-15c.

Transferred to non-military senses by 1550s. Meaning "body of adherents of a doctrine or cause" is from
1871. Camp-follower "one who follows an army without being officially connected to it," such as sutlers, washer-
women, etc., first attested 1810. Camp-meeting "religious meeting for prayer, etc., held in an outdoor camp" is from
1809, American English, originally and especially in reference to Methodists. Camp-fever (1758) is any epidemic
fever incident to life in a camp, especially typhus or typhoid. A camp-stool (1794) has a flexible seat and cross-legs
and is made to be folded up and packed away when not in use.

C. School

"place of instruction," Old English scol, from Latin schola "intermission of work, leisure for learning; learned
conversation, debate; lecture; meeting place for teachers and students, place of instruction; disciples of a teacher,
body of followers, sect," from Greek skhole "spare time, leisure, rest, ease; idleness; that in which leisure is
employed; learned discussion;" also "a place for lectures, school;" originally "a holding back, a keeping clear,"
from skhein "to get" (from PIE root -segh "to hold") + -ole by analogy with bole "a throw," stole "outfit," etc.

The original notion is "leisure," which passed to "otiose discussion" (in Athens or Rome the favorite or proper use for
free time), then "place for such discussion." The Latin word was widely borrowed (Old French escole, French école,
Spanish escuela, Italian scuola, Old High German scuola, German Schule, Swedish skola, Gaelic sgiol, Welsh ysgol,
Russian shkola). Translated in Old English as larhus, literally "lore house," but this seems to have been a glossary
word only.

Meaning "students attending a school" in English is attested from c. 1300; sense of "school building" is first recorded
1590s. Sense of "people united by a general similarity of principles and methods" is from 1610s; hence school of
thought (1864). School of hard knocks "rough experience in life" is recorded from 1912 (in George Ade); to tell tales
out of school "betray damaging secrets" is from 1540s. School bus is from 1908. School days is from 1590s. School
board from 1870.

D. Religion

1200, "state of life bound by monastic vows," also "conduct indicating a belief in a divine power," from Anglo-
French religiun (11c.), Old French religion "piety, devotion; religious community," and directly from
Latin religionem(nominative religio) "respect for what is sacred, reverence for the gods; conscientiousness, sense of
right, moral obligation; fear of the gods; divine service, religious observance; a religion, a faith, a mode of worship,
cult; sanctity, holiness," in Late Latin "monastic life" (5c.).
According to Cicero derived from relegere "go through again" (in reading or in thought), from re- "again" (see re-)
+ legere "read" (see lecture (n.)). However, popular etymology among the later ancients (Servius, Lactantius,
Augustine) and the interpretation of many modern writers connects it with religare "to bind fast" (see rely), via
notion of "place an obligation on," or "bond between humans and gods." In that case, the re- would be intensive.
Another possible origin is religiens "careful," opposite of negligens. In English, meaning "particular system of faith" is
recorded from c. 1300; sense of "recognition of and allegiance in manner of life (perceived as justly due) to a higher,
unseen power or powers" is from 1530s.
To hold, therefore, that there is no difference in matters of religion between forms that are unlike each other, and
even contrary to each other, most clearly leads in the end to the rejection of all religion in both theory and practice.
And this is the same thing as atheism, however it may differ from it in name. [Pope Leo XIII, Immortale Dei, 1885]

E.Beef

1300, "an ox, bull, or cow," also the flesh of one when killed, used as food, from Old French buef "ox; beef; ox hide"
(11c., Modern French boeuf), from Latin bovem (nominative bos, genitive bovis) "ox, cow," from PIE root *gwou- "ox,
bull, cow." Original plural in the animal sense was beeves.

F.Chicken

Old English cicen (plural cicenu) "young of the domestic hen, the young of any bird;" by early Middle English, "any
chicken," regardless of age, from Proto-Germanic *kiukinam (source also of Middle Dutch kiekijen, Dutch kieken, Old
Norse kjuklingr, Swedish kyckling, German Küken "chicken"), from root *keuk- (echoic of the bird's sound and
possibly also the root of cock (n.1)) + diminutive suffixes. By regular sound changes it should have become Modern
English *chichen; the reason it didn't is unknown.

Generic words for "chicken" in Indo-European tend to be extended uses of "hen" words, as hens are more
numerous than cocks among domestic fowl, but occasionally they are from words for the young, as in English and in
Latin (pullus). Meaning "one who is cowardly or timorous" is from 1610s; adjectival sense of "cowardly" is at least as
old as 14c. (compare hen-herte "a chicken-hearted person," mid-15c.). As the name of a game of danger to test
courage, it is first recorded 1953.

Chicken-feed "paltry sum of money" is by 1897, American English slang; literal use (it is made from the from lowest
quality of grain) is by 1834. Chicken lobster "small lobster," is by 1947, American English, apparently from chicken in
its sense of "young." To count (one's) chickens before they hatch "anticipate too confidently the obtaining or doing
of something" is from 1570s. Chicken-fried steak (1937) is a U.S. Southern recipe that batters, breads, and fries a
thin strip of steak in the way fried chicken typically is made.

G.Carpenter

"artificer in timber, one who does the heavier sort of wood-working," c. 1300 (attested from early 12c. as a
surname), from Anglo-French carpenter, Old North French carpentier (Old French and Modern French charpentier),
from Late Latin (artifex) carpentarius "wagon (maker), carriage-maker" (in Medieval Latin "carpenter," properly an
adjective, "pertaining to a cart or carriage," from Latin carpentum "wagon, two-wheeled carriage, cart." This word is
from Gaulish, from Old Celtic *carpentom (compare Old Irish carpat, Gaelic carbad "carriage"), which probably is
related to Gaulish karros"chariot" (source of car), from PIE root *kers- "to run."

Also from the Late Latin word are Spanish carpintero, Italian carpentiero. Replaced Old English treowwyrhta, which is
literally "tree-wright." German Zimmermann "carpenter" is from Old High German zimbarman, from zimbar "wood
for building, timber," cognate with Old Norse timbr (see timber). First record of carpenter-bee, which bores into half-
rotten wood to deposit its eggs, is from 1795. A carpenter's rule (1690s) is foldable, suitable for carrying in the
pocket.
H.Sky

c. 1200, "a cloud," from Old Norse sky "cloud," from Proto-Germanic *skeujam "cloud, cloud cover" (source also of
Old English sceo, Old Saxon scio "cloud, region of the clouds, sky;" Old High German scuwo, Old English scua, Old
Norse skuggi "shadow;" Gothic skuggwa "mirror"), from PIE root *(s)keu- "to cover, conceal."

Meaning "upper regions of the air" is attested from c. 1300; replaced native heofon in this sense (see heaven). In
Middle English, the word can still mean both "cloud" and "heaven," as still in the skies, originally "the clouds." Sky-
high is from 1812; phrase the sky's the limit is attested from 1908. Sky-dive first recorded 1965; sky-writing is from
1922.

I.Cat

Old English catt (c. 700) "domestic cat," from West Germanic (c. 400-450), from Proto-Germanic *kattuz (source also
of Old Frisian katte, Old Norse köttr, Dutch kat, Old High German kazza, German Katze), from Late Latin cattus.

The near-universal European word now, it appeared in Europe as Latin catta (Martial, c. 75 C.E.), Byzantine
Greek katta(c. 350) and was in general use on the continent by c. 700, replacing Latin feles. Probably ultimately Afro-
Asiatic (compare Nubian kadis, Berber kadiska, both meaning "cat"). Arabic qitt "tomcat" may be from the same
source. Cats were domestic in Egypt from c. 2000 B.C.E., but not a familiar household animal to classical Greeks and
Romans. The nine lives have been proverbial at least since 1560s.

The Late Latin word also is the source of Old Irish and Gaelic cat, Welsh kath, Breton kaz, Italian gatto, Spanish gato,
French chat (12c.). Independent, but ultimately from the same source are words in the Slavic group: Old Church
Slavonic kotuka, kotel'a, Bulgarian kotka, Russian koška, Polish kot, along with Lithuanian katė and non-Indo-
European Finnish katti, which is from Lithuanian.

Extended to lions, tigers, etc. c. 1600. As a term of contempt for a woman, from early 13c. Slang sense of
"prostitute" is from at least c. 1400. Slang sense of "fellow, guy," is from 1920, originally in African-American
vernacular; narrower sense of "jazz enthusiast" is recorded from 1931.

Cat's paw (1769, but cat's foot in the same sense, 1590s) refers to the old folk tale in which the monkey tricks the
cat into pawing chestnuts from a fire; the monkey gets the roasted nuts, the cat gets a burnt paw. Cat burglar is
from 1907, so called for stealth. Cat-witted "small-minded, obstinate, and spiteful" (1670s) deserved to survive.
For Cat's meow, cat's pajamas, see bee's knees. For let the cat out of the bag, see bag (n.).

J. Altar

Old English alter, altar "altar," from Latin altare (plural altaria) "high altar, altar for sacrifice to the great gods,"
perhaps originally meaning "burnt offerings" (compare Latin adolere "to worship, to offer sacrifice, to honor by
burning sacrifices to"), but influenced by Latin altus "high." In Middle English, often auter, from Old French auter.
Latin spelling restored 1500s. As a symbol of marriage, by 1820. Altar-piece is from 1640s; altar-boy from 1772.

History of English

The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain
during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what
today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of
the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and
Ireland. The Angles came from "Englaland" [sic] and their language was called "Englisc" - from which the words
"England" and "English" are derived.
Old English (450-1100 AD)

The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English.
Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great difficulty
understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old
English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until
around 1100.

Middle English (1100-1500)

In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England.
The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the
Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the
lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in
Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the language of the
great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today.

Modern English

Early Modern English (1500-1800)

Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started,
with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with many
peoples from around the world.

This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The
invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more
people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and
the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary
was published.

Late Modern English (1800-Present)

The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has
many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need
for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English
language adopted foreign words from many countries.

Varieties of English

From around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the creation of a distinct American variety
of English. Some English pronunciations and words "froze" when they reached America. In some ways, American
English is more like the English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions that the British call
"Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost for a time in
Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-
up, was re-imported into Britain through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also had an influence on American
English (and subsequently British English), with words like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of
Spanish words that entered English through the settlement of the American West. French words (through Louisiana)
and West African words (through the slave trade) also influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British
English).

Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of cinema, television, popular music,
trade and technology (including the Internet). But there are many other varieties of English around the world,
including for example Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English
and Caribbean English.

The Germanic Family of Languages