Fatigue Lecture (LHA)

6/15/2011
Fatigue
Lecture Notes
Ly Hung Anh
Department of Aeronautical Engineering

HoChiMinh City University of Technology
References
J. Schijve, Fatigue of Structures and Materials, Springer

R. I. Stephen, A. Fatemi, R. R. Stephens, H. O. Fuchs, Metal Fatigue in Engineering,
John Wiley & Sons
I. S. Putra, Lecture at Bandung Institute of Technology.
T. Nakamura, Lecture at Tokyo Institute of Technology.
Fatigue _ Definition
Fatigue is a failure mode due to cyclic/fluctuating loads
• fatigue failure occur at stresses considerably lower than the

yield strength
• characterized by very little plastic deformation even in a
ductile material (brittle like fracture)
• the process of fatigue fracture occurs by :
- initiation of cracks
- propagation of cracks
- final fracture
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Fatigue Failure in Aircraft Structures
Fatigue of aircraft structures is still an important consideration due

to:
1. Catastrophic accidents due to fatigue are still occurring
2. Aircraft are used more intensively and economic life has increased
3. Occurrence of fatigue cracks means repairs or modifications 
economically undesirable
4. Airlines are putting pressure on large inspection periods
5. Use of stronger materials for lighter structures  employs lower
ductility and increased sensitivity for fatigue and cracks
A typical example of accident in aircraft industry due to

Fracture & Fatigue
Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988
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Explosive decompression of the passenger cabin at 7350 m
The cause of the Aloha accident (US National Transportation

Safety Board) :
“… a result of multiple-site fatigue cracking of the skin adjacent to
rivet holes along the lap joint upper rivet row and tear strap
debonding which negated the fail-safe characteristic of the
fuselage”.
Important aspect :
The aircraft is old, it had made 89.681 flights, while the economic
design life 75.000 flights
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Typical fuselage lap joint in Boeing 737-200
Multiple-Site Damage
NASA Conference Publication 3160; page 141
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Sequence of fuselage skin failure
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Chapter 1 : Introduction to Fatigue of Structures
Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.1 Different phases of the fatigue life
Fatigue life consist of two periods:
• Crack initiation period

• Crack growth period
Surface conditions do affect crack initiation but have a negligible

influence on the crack growth period.
Fatigue prediction methods are different for the two periods
Kt is important for prediction of crack initiation, while K is used for

crack growth prediction
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2.1 Different phases of the fatigue life
Different phases of the fatigue life and relevant factors

2.2 Crack initiation
Cycle slip leads to crack nucleation
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Schematic of slip due to external load. (a) Static (steady) stress. (b) Cyclic stress.
(c) Fatigue progression in the formation of an extrusion/intrusion pair

Crack nucleation due to cyclic slip
• A single cycle create intrusion  a microcrack

• Repetition cause crack extension
• The first initiation is expected along a slip band
• Cyclic slip can lead to extrusion
• Decohesion occurs in the intrusion mechanism
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Slip due to tensile load Slip due to fatigue load

Intrusion and Extrusion
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Intrusion and Extrusion

Development of cyclic slip bands and a microcrack in a pure copper specimen.

Sm = 0, Sa = 77.5 MPa, N = 2 × 106
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In the crack initiation period

fatigue is a material surface phenomenon
2.3 Crack growth
Schematic of stages I (shear mode) and II (tensile mode) transcrystalline

microscopic crack growth
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2.3 Crack growth
Crystal structure of stainless steel SUS304
2.3 Crack growth
Crystal structure of stainless steel SUS304
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2.3 Crack growth
Grain boundary effect on crack growth in an Al-alloy. The crack length was
measured along the material surface
2.3 Crack growth
Top view of crack with crack front passing through many grains
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2.3 Crack growth
Crack growth resistance, when the crack penetrates into the

material, as a bulk property.
It is no longer a surface phenomenon
2.3 Crack growth
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2.3 Crack growth

DOS AND DON‟TS IN DESIGN
Chapter 3 : Two Approaches to Fatigue Design/Study
Total – Life Approach
High-cycle fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue
Defect – Tolerant Approach

Crack Growth Approach (Fracture Mechanics Approach)
Safe-life concept
Fail-safe concept
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This is a classical approach to fatigue design, which

involves the total life to failure in terms of cyclic
stress/strain (S-N curve method). It assumes no cracks to
pre-exist prior to loading and the total fatigue life is sum of
the initiation (to form a dominant crack) life and the
propagation life. In general, the former is much longer
(can be 90% of total life) than later.
There are two classifications in this approach.

High-cycle fatigue
Low-cycle fatigue
High-cycle fatigue
Small level stress fatigue and mostly associated with
elastic deformation. The initiation life can be greater than
103 to 104 cycles (e.g., rotating and vibrating systems). It
is traditionally characterized in terms of stress range.
Low-cycle fatigue
Large magnitude of cyclic load and can cause appreciable
plastic deformation. The initiation life can be smaller than
103 to 104 cycles (e.g., automotive). It is traditionally
characterized in terms of classical (short-life) strain-based
formula.
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It uses fracture mechanic models to characterize fatigue
conditions. The basic premise here is that all engineering
components inherently contain some flaws. The sizes of flaws
can be determined through non-destructive flaw detection (e.g.,
X-ray, ultrasonic). The fatigue life depends on the propagation
of critical/dominant cracks. In this approach, a periodic
maintenance/inspection is assumed before fatigue cracks grow
over critical sizes. Usually, the crack-tip plastic zone is
contained so that small-scale yielding condition exists. The
applications are mainly for aerospace components and
pressure vessels in nuclear power plants.
Two sub-groups can be identified
Safe-life concept
Fail-safe concept
Safe-life concept
This is a less conservative theory that within operating interval,
no pre-existing cracks are expected to grow to the critical size. It
is required to model crack growth rates for a given type of
operation/loading history. The estimated fatigue life provides a
prediction of „safe-life‟ for the component. The emphasis is on
the prevention of critical size cracks.
Fail-safe concept
This concept is based on the argument that, even if an
individual component fails, there is sufficient structure integrity
to prevent catastrophic failure. The structure must possess a
redundancy mechanism. The fail-safe approach mandates
periodic inspection with a capable technique to detect any
critical flaws.
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Summary
1. Total – Life Approach
• total fatigue life : crack initiation life + crack propagation life
• total fatigue life in terms of cyclic stress range (S-N curve
approach) or cyclic strain range
• high cycle fatigue  stress approach
• low cycle fatigue  strain approach
2. Crack Growth Approach (Fracture Mechanics Approach)

• fatigue life is defined as the number of cycles to propagate the
crack from initial size to some critical dimension
• fracture mechanics parameter is used (the stress intensity factor)
This phenomenological approach (stress-life, strain-life,

defect-free) has been widely used to characterize the total
life as a function of applied stress strain ranges. In this
approach, the total life is defined as the total number of
cycles to induce fatigue damage and to initiate a dominant
fatigue flaw, which propagates to final failure.
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Stress-life model
The stress-life model was first introduced by Wöhler

in 1980s. The concept is based on endurance limit,
which characterizes the stress level below which a
material is expected to have an infinite fatigue life.
This empirical method was found wide application
where low amplitude cyclic stresses induce elastic
deformation (limited plastic deformation) in high-cycle
fatigue environment.

Stress-life model
Component, structures, and vehicles

are subjected to quite diverse load
histories. At one extreme, their
histories may be rather simple and
repetitive; at the other extreme, they
maybe completely random.
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Stress-life model
• Three types of fluctuating stresses

(Completely reversed stress cycle, Repeated stress cycle and Random stress cycle)
Completely reversed stress cycle

(max) tensile = (min) compression
mean = m = 0

Stress-life model
 max   min
m 
2
 r   max   min
   min
 a  max
2

R  min
 max
Repeated stress cycle
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Stress-life model
Repeated stress cycle

Stress-life model
Random stress cycle
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Stress-life model
The S-N Curve
• The S-N curve describe the fatigue properties of materials

• A point in the specimen is subjected to completely reversed
stress cycle
• A series of tests are performed at different values of Sa
• The life of each specimen is plotted as stress Sa vs. log of
number of cycles (N)

Stress-life model
R.R. Moore rotating bending test
• four point bending

• constant moment is applied to the specimen
• fully reversed uniaxial state of stress
• specimen is mirror polished with diameter 8 - 10 mm
• stress level at the surface at the specimen
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Stress-life model
R.R. Moore rotating bending test

Stress-life model
Typical S-N curve showing Two types of material

scatter response to cyclic loading
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Stress-life model
Fatigue limit or Endurance limit (f or e)
1. Stress amplitude for which the fatigue life becomes infinite

2. The smallest + a which still leads to crack initiation
3. The largest a which is still incapable to produce crack initiation
S-N schematic of fatigue crack nucleation, growth and final fracture

Stress-life model
Fatigue ratio of several wrought steel
1ksi(1000psi) = 6.8948N/mm (Mpa)

1N/mm (Mpa) = 0.145038ksi
BHN = Brinell Hardness Number
• For most steels with u< 200 ksi   e  u  0.5

• Using rule of thumb u (in ksi)  0.5 x BHN, it can be written
e  0.25 x BHN for BHN  400
e  100 ksi for BHN > 400
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Stress-life model
e as a function of u
e  0.5 u for u  200 ksi

e  100 ksi for u > 200 ksi

Stress-life model
Generalized S-N Curve for Wrought Steels
1000  0.9 u
e  0.5 u
S = 1.62 u N-0.085
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Stress-life model
Mean Stress Effects
    max   min  stress range

 max   min
a   stress amplitude
2
 max   min
m   mean stress
2
 min
R  stress ratio
 max

A  a  amplitude ratio
m

Stress-life model
Haigh diagram
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Stress-life model
Empirical Relationship for The Effect Mean Stress in Infinite Life
a m
 1 Soderberg
 e  ys
a m
 1 Goodman
e u
2
a m 
  1 Gerber
 e   u 
a m
 1 Morrow
e  f Comparison of mean stress equation
(a. Soderberg, b. Goodman, c. Gerber, d. Morrow)

Stress-life model
Master Diagram for AISI 4340 Steel
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Stress-life model

Stress-life model
Loading Effects
• Tensile loading  no stress gradient  lower life
Empirical data e (axial)  e (bending)
• Torsion loading  von Mises Criterion
e (torsion) 0.577 (bending)
Surface Finish
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Stress-life model
Surface Treatment
• Fatigue cracks always start at the free surface  surface

treatment can have significant effect on fatigue life
• Surface treatments include prestressing, plating, thermal,
or mechanical
• Effects on fatigue life is due primarily to residual stresses

Stress-life model
Residual stress in unnotched

beam in bending
Residual stress in notched

member under axial loading
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Stress-life model
Prestressing
• A method to produce a residual stress with an initial load
• Example of the influence of pre-stressing in 4340 steel
• Prestressing is used on coil and leaf spring

• Initial stressing is favorable for future loading in the same direction
• Coil spring is prestressed in compression will have beneficial effect
for future cyclic compression load

Stress-life model
Prestressing
• Important point:
 Fatigue is a surface phenomenon  residual stress at the
surface of material is critical
 Compressive residual stresses are beneficial, and tensile
residual stresses are detrimental to fatigue life
 Residual stresses are not always permanent, high
temperatures and overloads may cause stress relaxation
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Stress-life model Effects of Plating on Endurance Limit
• Chrome and nickel plating of steels can cause up to 60% reduction of e
• Pure aluminum cladding of aluminum alloy plate can reduce e about 50%
• The decrease is due to:
– crack initiation in the soft cladding layer of aluminum alloy plate is relatively easy
– plating process in steel resulted in high residual tensile stresses
• The following operations can help alleviate the residual tensile stress
– nitride the part before plating
– shot peen the part before or after plating
– anneal the part after plating

Stress-life model Thermal processes
Carburizing
• A surface hardening method performed by bringing a carbon-rich
material into contact with steel
• Pack carburizing: using charcoal or coke
• Gas carburizing: using natural gas, ethane, etc.
• Liquid carburizing: using NaCN, BaCN2, etc
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Nitriding
• A surface hardening method performed by filling the outer skin of steel
part with nitrogen
• Nitriding is a gaseous process using NH3  forming very hard iron
nitride

Flame Hardening
• A surface hardening by a direct flame from an oxyacetylene torch is
brought into contact with the surface to be hardened
• Quenching follows after the surface is hot
Induction Hardening
• The outer surface is heated with a high frequency electrical current flows
through a coil of wire
• Quenching follows
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Stress-life model
Effect of Thermal Processes on Endurance Limit
• Thermal processes such as carburizing and nitriding increase the endurance limit
• Carburizing and nitriding  1. producing higher strength material on the surface
2. producing residual compressive surface stresses
• Hot rolling and forging can cause surface decarburizing  carbon atom escape  lower
strength on the surface  produce residual tensile stress  lower endurance limit

Stress-life model
Effect of Cold Rolling and Shot Peening on Endurance Limit
• Both processes produce compressive residual stresses and work harden the
material surface
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Stress-life model
Effects of Temperature on Endurance Limit
• e increase at low temperature but remember fracture

toughness decrease at low temperature
• e for steels disappears at high temperatures due to the

mobilizing of dislocations

Stress-life model
Effects of Environment on Endurance Limit
• Corrosive environment causing corrosion fatigue

• Corrosion fatigue eliminates the endurance limit
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Stress-life model
Effects of Environment on Endurance Limit

Stress-life model
Modifying Factors
Important concept
• As a general trend the following factors will reduce the value of
endurance limit:
 Tensile mean stress
 Large section size
 Rough surface finish
 Chrome and nickel plating
 Decarburization (due to forging and hot rolling)
 Severe grinding
• The following factors tend to increase the endurance limit:

 Nitriding
 Flam and induction hardening
 Carburization
 Shot peening
 Cold rolling
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6/15/2011

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

J. Schijve, Fatigue of Structures and Materials, Springer

Fatigue is a failure mode due to cyclic/fluctuating loads

• fatigue failure occur at stresses considerably lower than the

Fatigue Failure in Aircraft Structures

Fatigue of aircraft structures is still an important consideration due

A typical example of accident in aircraft industry due to

Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988

Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988

Explosive decompression of the passenger cabin at 7350 m

Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988

The cause of the Aloha accident (US National Transportation

Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988

Typical fuselage lap joint in Boeing 737-200

Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988

Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988

Boeing 737-200 Aloha Airlines, 28 April 1988

Sequence of fuselage skin failure

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Fatigue of Structures

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Fatigue life consist of two periods:

• Crack initiation period

Surface conditions do affect crack initiation but have a negligible

Fatigue prediction methods are different for the two periods

Kt is important for prediction of crack initiation, while K is used for

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Different phases of the fatigue life and relevant factors

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Cycle slip leads to crack nucleation

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Crack nucleation due to cyclic slip

• A single cycle create intrusion  a microcrack

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Slip due to tensile load Slip due to fatigue load

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

Development of cyclic slip bands and a microcrack in a pure copper specimen.

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.2 Crack initiation

In the crack initiation period

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Schematic of stages I (shear mode) and II (tensile mode) transcrystalline

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Crystal structure of stainless steel SUS304

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Crystal structure of stainless steel SUS304

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Crack growth resistance, when the crack penetrates into the

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Chapter 2 : Fatigue as phenomenon in the material

2.3 Crack growth

Chapter 3 : Two Approaches to Fatigue Design/Study