FRIEDRICH SCHLEGEL AND C. J. L.

ALMQVIST: ROMANTIC IRONY AND TEXTUAL ARTIFICE

Author(s): Marilyn J. Blackwell
Source: Scandinavian Studies, Vol. 52, No. 2 (SPRING 1980), pp. 127-141
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Society for the Advancement of
Scandinavian Study
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 FRIEDRICH SCHLEGEL AND C. J. L. ALMQVIST:
ROMANTIC IRONY AND TEXTUAL ARTIFICE

Marilyn J. Blackwell
of Virginia
University

those termsthatliterary scholarsbandyabout,feware

so likelyto precipitatetotalmentaland semanticconfusionas
theconceptof"Romanticirony."Partofthiswidespread perplexity
maybe tracedback to Friedrich Schlegel,whointroduced theterm
ironyintomodernliterary criticism.1 whichhave had
His writings,
sucha decisiveinfluence on subsequent(mis)understandings ofthe
term,are couchedin a styleof such seemingoracularincoherence
as to guaranteedebateon thematter fordecadesifnotcenturiesto
come.It is notmyintention hereto providea detailedinterpretation
ofSchlegel's poetictheory, butrathertopointouta fewofitssalient
characteristics in orderto establisha comparisonwithC. J. L.
Almqvist'sconceptof Romanticirony.To thisend I shall draw
uponSchlegel'saphorisms and Almqvist'stheoretical essay "Även
om Humoroch Stil däri" (1833) and his novel Drottningens Ju-
velsmycke (1834),foronlyby determining whatRomanticironyis,
and moreimportantly, whatit is not, can we beginto assess its
relationship to individualworks.2
Althoughit has been statedmanytimesbefore,it is, I think,
worthreiterating thatRomanticironyis nota literary techniquein
the sense in which,forinstance,dramaticironyis, but rathera
philosophical conceptor posture:a dialecticperceptionof theau-
thor'srelationship to his workand his metaphysical systemrather
thana specificliterary device or style.Schlegelis not,of course,
the firstthinkerto regardironyas a philosophicalratherthana
literaryconcern:Plato assumedthatironyrightly belongedto the
realmsof thought ratherthanto thoseof literary expression.But
whereastheconceptis primarily in Plato,itis both
epistemological
philosophicaland aestheticin Schlegel,who tells us in typically
aphoristic style:
Ironie ist gleichsamdie [Darstellung]d[er] Unendlichkeit,d[er] Universali-
tät, vom sinn fürsWeltall.3
Ironie ist klares Bewusstsein der ewigen Agilität, des unendlich vollen
Chaos. [Id 69, 263]

Scandinavian Studies 52(1980): 127-141

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128 Scandinavian Studies

Already a question arises: how can ironybe at one and the same
timea representationand a state of consciousness?
This problem ultimatelyis grounded in the fact that irony for
Schlegel is based on the fundamentalRomanticphilosophical con-
trastbetweenfiniteand infinite, between the accessible worldof the
senses and the realmof the ideal existingonlyin eternity.The world
is paradoxical in its essence, and only an ambivalentattitudecan
grasp its contradictoryreality. The deeply divisive quality of life
must,of course, also informthe process of artisticcreation.A work
of literatureis both a communicationand a thingcommunicated;it
is static and finiteand consequentlycannot adequately express the
dynamicqualityof eitherits authorshipor lifeitself.But at the same
time it gives clarityand formto otherwisechaotic forces; it is suf-
fused witha constant dialectic interplayof objectivityand subjec-
tivity.In orderforan artistto be able to compose in the Romantic
spirit,he must be both creative and critical,enthusiasticand real-
istic, emotionaland rational,unconsciouslyinspiredand conscious
artist.Ironybecomes, then,a means by whichthe artistcan bridge
the gap between objective realityand the subjective attitudeof his
imagination.Schlegel urges the artistto create his works in a par-
adoxical state of mind in which opposite attitudesfunctionsimul-
taneously, producing a literaryform that he calls "permanent
digression," i.e., a constant steppinginto and out of roles that en-
ables the artistto deal with a wide range of variant experiences.
Romantic irony is, therefore,the irony of an author who is con-
scious thatliteraturecan no longerbe simplynaive and unreflective
but mustpresentitselfas conscious of its contradictoryand ambiv-
alent nature. Schlegel speaks to thispointwhen he says, " In jedem
guten Gedicht muss alles Absicht und Instinktsein. Dadurch wird
es idealisch" (LF 23, 149). The poet must exhibita state of mind
that simultaneouslygrasps all oppositions and polarities,while ig-
noringtheirdifferences.Ambiguityis, then, one of the hallmarks
of irony: there is an essential duplicityin art, and Romantic irony
is theallegoricalmeans by whichtheartistrises above thisduplicity.
A dialectic movementoccurs wherebya conflictbetween "Selbsts-
chöpfung" and "Selbstvernichtung" gives rise to what Schlegel
calls "Selbstbeschränkung."
In Almqvistas well humorand ironyare rooted in philosophical
considerations,as we see in his essay "Även om Humor och Stil
däri" printedin Skandia.4 The expression "humorismenmed sin

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 Romantic Irony and Textual Artifice 129

ironi" mightlead one to believe thathe considers the formera kind

of Weltanschauungand the lattera categoryof style,but this dis-
tinctionis not consistentlymaintained.On the contrary,Almqvist
uses the terms "Humor" and "Ironi" interchangeably:both the
ironistand the humoristare characterizedby theirbenevolent and
disinterestedattitudes and their simultaneouslyconciliatory and
moralisticpositions, complementedby a strainof self-criticism.It
is the artist's duty to balance between the worlds of the real and
the ideal. Like Schlegel, Almqvist emphasizes the eternal agility
and the unceasing vacillation in the ironic style between high and
low, conscious and unconscious. Irony is for him both mild and
indulgentand sharp and revealing,unintendedand unconscious and
yet intendedand highlyconscious.
But neitherauthoris completelyreconciled withthe totallyop-
positive nature of his vision, and thus both posit a constructive
transcendenceabove these polarities.As Schlegel tells us in "Über
Goethes Meister," "Wir müssen uns über unsre eigne Liebe erhe-
ben, und was wir anbeten, in Gedanken vernichtenkönnen: sonst
fehltuns, was wir auch fürandre Fähigkeitenhaben, der Sinn für
das Weltall" (p. 131). The feelingof constraintto which Schlegel
is addressing himselfhere is absolutely essential to the Ronjantic
poet: he must be both detached and involved, serious and playful
about his art. This detachmentis also extended to the reader-work
relationship:the work becomes a spectacle to be observed by the
reader with detached amusement as well as a story in which to
become engrossed. Romanticironybreaks apart the innerharmony
of the work in order that a newer and higher harmony can be
achieved. Almqvistalso conceives of ironyas divisive and destruc-
tive, "sönderbrytandedet slags lugn, vari en, före avmâlningen,
befinnersig."5 But forboth authorsthe importantfactorin thisop-
positional relationshipis an aesthetic transcendence.Total artistic
freedomcan be foundonlyin thisstate,as Schlegel describesitin his
definitionof Socratic irony (virtually indistinguishablefrom his
discussion of general or Romantic irony):

Die Sokratische Ironic ... Es ist gleich unmöglichsie zu erkünsteln,und

sie zu verraten.... In ihr soll alles Scherz und alles frei sein, alles treu-
herzigoffen,und alles tiefverstellet.Sie entspringtaus der Vereinigungvon
Lebenskunstsinnund wissenschaftlichemGeist, aus dem Zusammentreffen
vollendeterNaturphilosophieund vollendeterKunstphilosophie.Sie enthält
und erregtein Gefühlvon dem unauflöslichenWiderstreitdes Unbedingten

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130 Scandinavian Studies

und des Bedingten,der Unmöglichkeitund Notwendigkeiteiner vollstän-

digen Mitteilung.... Sie ist die freiestealler Lizenzen, denn durchsie setzt
man über sich selbst weg; und doch auch die gesetztlichste,denn sie ist
unbedingtnotwendig.[LF, pp. 108, 160]

The ironicauthor'sawarenessof himselfas authorenhanceshis

feelingsoffreedomand inducesa moodof serenity, joyfulness,or
even exultation:as IngridStrohschneider-Kohrs maintains,"die
Ironieistein Bewusstsein,dessenAgierenvon Schlegelals Nega-
tionunddie durchdiese Negationbewirkte Höherführung gekenn-
zeichnetwird."6The artistbecomes,then,god-likein thathe has
bothsympathy forand distancefromtheworldwhosecreatorand
primummobilehe is.
This postureis one withwhichAlmqvistis also familiar.His
essaymaintains thatironyat one and thesametimedepictsthereal
worldofhumaneventsanddirectsthereader'svisionhighertoward
theideal: "vi senteraoss sjelva i djupet" and graduallywe travel
"himmelsvidt bortifrânoss sjelva:förvandlas"(p. 265). Whendis-
cussingtheuse ofambiguousexpressionsin ironicstyle,Almqvist
statesthat
de är just en av vingarneforflyktentillhögre regioner.Genom dem väckes
i läsarens eller betraktarenssensationerden känslan,attframställningen
icke
i gründenhar nâgot allvar varken med sittallvar eller med sittskämt, utan
är hemma helt annorstädes. [P. 263]

Not onlythereaderis transported to " higherregions,"butalso the

workitselfis affectedby its ironicmethodology. By beingput in
contactwithboththe worldof phenomenaand the worldof the
ideal, the workpresentsbotha destruction and a rebirthprocess
whichis at theheartof Schlegel's conceptoftranscendence. Both
the workand thereaderare borneupwardto a higherplane than
beforeand come to participatein a new visionof the subtleand
incommunicable ofexistence.Irony,forAlmqvist,
continuities per-
ceives people and humanevents"absolute- hon ser dem ur det
lugnaevigasvackraögon,införvilketingenting skönjesannorlunda
an blottforvad det är- införvilketsâledésingenbenämning, intet
enda adjektivpâ allvargäller"(p. 263). Thisis, ofcourse,strongly
reminiscent of theGermanRomantics'predilection forviewingall
activitiesand phenomenafromtheaspectoftheinfinite.
Fromthisperspective ofinfinitytheindividual humanbeingand
the individualart worklook pathetically There is a
insignificant.

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 Romantic Irony and Textual Artifice 131

deep undercurrent of the self-deprecatory in irony,includingthe

GermanRomanticvariant,to whichSchlegelspeakswhenhe calls
irony"stete Selbstparodie"(LF, pp. 108, 160). Knowinghis in-
abilityto createthe perfectart workthataccuratelyreflectsthe
totalityof humanexperience,theartistis confronted withhis own
inadequacyandimperfection. Butbyironicdepreciation ofthework
withinthework,thedeficiency is compensated.By anticipating the
finitenatureof literature and its self-destructive qualityand incor-
porating theseintothework,theauthordefeatsthefinite.Similarly
in Almqvist'sthought, self-irony is at therootofall otherformsof
humor:itgenerates"det heliga,inre,oskyldigalöjetoversig själv,
somfordetavmâladesubjektet är sa hälsosamt.. . ." (p. 256).Irony
has becomethena kindofHegelianmediumof self-consciousness,
a processwherebyliterature comesto a fullconsciousnessofitself.
A majorproblemarises,however,whenone triesto transform
Schlegel's aestheticphilosophical conceptofironyintoa practicable
set ofliterary He
techniques. praisesSterne'snarrative technique,
eitherimplicitly or explicitlypointingto such devicesas authorial
intrusion, self-reflective
commentary, constantdigression, and the
interposed humorous narrator. In literary practiceAlmqvistexploits
all these possibilities,but furthermore addresseshimselfto this
problemin "Även om Humoroch Stildäri": "Vad somtillen stor
del giverironiendennatvâfaldiga egenskap,är dess satti Stilen,att
stundomnyttjauttryck av dubbelmening,sa val i resonemanger
som skildringar (vilkahärsammanfalla, emedani ironienaldrignâ-
got resonemang betyderresonemang eller är tillförde sanningar
och slutsatser, det tyckesuppgöra,utansjälvtendaststarsom ett
skilderi,bildarkoloriti läsarensinrevärld)" (p. 261). He agitates
fora mixedstylein whicha varietyof linguistic methodsare em-
ployedand also suggeststhatambiguity inform the workin both
linguisticand plotstructures.
Thisis notto saythatAlmqvist'sand Schlegel's theoriesofirony
are identical:on thecontrary, Almqvist'sspeculations havea much
morepractical,moralistic bentthando Schlegel's,withtheGerman
critic'semphasison the rationallogicalnatureof irony.But both
criticsclearlysharea number ofphilosophical andliterary concerns.
Forboth,ironyis a philosophical posturethatfindsitssourceinthe
infinitedualityof the universe.Only by beingconsciousof both
sidesoflife'sintrinsic polaritiescan one riseabovethemwitha self-
criticalstanceandachievean understanding ofa universalharmony

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132 Scandinavian Studies

thatsupersedes the negativeambivalence of the ironist.This higher

harmonyis not intellectualper se but rathera transcendencethat
defiestraditionalcategories of understanding.It is no matterof ac-
cidentthatKierkegaardhimselfaddressed the topic in his 1841 the-
"
sis, in which he states that Ironien 0nskerikke i Almindelighedat
blive forstaat" and, because of its conceptual substructure:

Ironien sensu eminentiorirettersig ikke mod dette eller hint enkelte Til-
vaerende,den rettersig mod hele den til en vis Tid og under visse Forhold
givne Virkelighed.Den har derforen Aprioriteti sig, og det er ikke ved
tgj0re et Stykke af Virkelighedefterdet andet, at den
succesivt at tilinte
kommertil sin Total-Anskuelse, men det er i Kraftaf denne Phaenomen,
men det er TilvaerelsensTotale, den betragtersub specie ironiae.7

But if we as literaryscholars wish to determinein what way a

textcan be romanticallyironical,we mustexamine those particular
devices that the author uses in order to achieve this philosophical
spirit.It is my contentionthatthis spiritcannot be directlyimposed
upon a text,but rathermustbe accomplished throughthe extensive
use of what we traditionallycall ironic techniques. Literaryirony
is, then, in many respects different fromRomantic irony. Literary
ironyis, for the most part, divisive and destructive,servingboth to
our
fragment perceptions and to representthe fragmentation of var-
ious elements of the text, and, above all else, it is a referential
phenomenonin thatit depends forits success on at least two planes
of reference.Romantic irony,on the otherhand, is nonreferential:
it is a perspective,a mode of consciousness, whose purpose is to
constructa higherstate of awareness throughthe fusionof various
categories of experience.
Dramatic ironymay well be one of the richestformsof literary
irony,presentinga situationin which some individuallocated either
withinor outside the work has a mistakennotion of the true state
of events. This technique has several functionsin artisticcompo-
sition,the most importantof which is to provide a cohesive force
to fuse togetherdifferent elementsin a longer work in such a way
thata given scene or situationis firstunderstoodonly when viewed
against the background of the rest of the text. One of the ways
dramaticironycan workis in the developmentof a constantaware-
ness on our part that we are confrontinga work of art and not a
microcosmicreality.The author can remindus that there is a di-
rectingintelligenceoutside the workthatis affectingour perception

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 Romantic Irony and Textual Artifice 133

of it, thatthereare conditionsof authorship and composition that

mustbe bornein mindwhilewe proceedthrough thebook. He is
an ironicobserverof his own product,and we are placed in an
ironicalpositionin thatwe are constantly remindedof thereality,
thatis to say,theartifice, ofthetext.
Dramaticironyin Drottningens juvelsmyckeis presentedboth
situationally andverbally.WhenGustafIII wishesTintomara "sam-
ma slutsom migsjälv," onlywe as readersare awareof theigno-
rancethatprompts thisstatement.8 Onlywe knowtherealidentities
ofthenumerous characters whoare indisguise,thetruestateofthe
Scribeaneroticintrigue thatintroduces thenovel,thefutility of all
thecharacterswho seek so desperately to possess Tintomara, and
the probableoutcomeof the executionthatconcludesthe novel.
Fromthebeginning to theendofthenovel,we as readersknowfar
morethananycharacter within theworkandknowitwiththeironic
smileofsuperiorintelligence and detachment. Butat thesametime
thereare any numberof thingsthatwe do not know. Like the
charactersthemselves,we encounternumerouspersons whose
namesare notgivento us butratherare simplycalled "Mannen,"
"
Han," "Hon," "Volontören," "Första herrn," and "Andrà
herrn,"and whoseidentity is eitherdisguisedor undisclosed.This
keeps us in a stateof suspense,i.e., involvement, in the story,at
thesametimethatit showsup ourignoranceand remindsus ofour
inability to knowanything completely. The entirenovelis actually
fullof instancesin whichwe do not knowwhathas become of
characters, whatramifications certainactionshave,or how a char-
actercame to his or herpresentsituation.
This dramatically ironicposturealso pervadesthe narrative
stanceof thenoveland is mostobviousin theoscillationbetween
a third-person omniscient narratorand a first-persondemonicnar-
rator.Of thetwelvebooks thatcomposethenovel,books 2, 3, 5,
and partsof 4, 11, and 12 are narratedin traditional fashionwith
eithera visibleorinvisiblenarrator. The restarecomposedas letters
ordramatic scenes.Thisvacillation ofstanceis notonlyreminiscent
ofSchlegel's conceptof"Mischgedicht"butalso compelstheread-
erto reexamine thesourceofhisknowledge abouttheeventsinthe
textand to questionhis own vantagepointon whatis transpiring.
The interposednarrator RichardFummoalso functions as a kind
of "mellanting"betweenpublisherand secondaryauthor.In the
trueRomanticspiritAlmqvistrefusesto commithimself to a given

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134 Scandinavian Studies

narrative postureorto a giveninterpretation ofeventsorcharacters.

Thisambivalenceis further emphasized in his use ofbothSocratic
irony in theperson ofRichard Fummo, who feignsignoranceofthe
eventswhichhe recounts,and ingénuironyin thepersonof Tin-
tomara,whois foreveraskingin theauthor'ssteadthemostnaive
questionsaboutthe natureof love and society,actingon thepart
oftheironist to comment on thecourseofhumanevents.She knows
morethananyothercharacter inthenovelandis, inmanyrespects,
a projectionof our own ironicstance. It is she who watchesthe
outrageousscene in whicha male visitorcomes to her chamber
expectingto embraceher,onlyto findhimselftrappedin the me-
chanicalclutchesof an automatedmannequin.She is notonlyde-
ceived,as are the others,by the numerousdisguisesadoptedby
othercharacters.She is, in fact,so thoroughly an embodiment of
ourpresenceinthenovelthatGustaf III calls her "une comedienne
de la plusparfaiteironie!"(p. 79). She is distantfrombutinvolved
intheeventsofthenovel- hernaiveteis ournaivete,and hercom-
plicityourcomplicity.
In orderto remindus of the work'sironyof perceptionand
posture,the authorhas variousmethodsat his disposal,one of
whichis theemphasisof a self-reflexive qualityin thetext.Paral-
lelismin Drottningens juvelsmycke functions in sucha waythatour
understanding and appreciation ofanygiventextualelementis de-
pendentuponothersimilarconstructs. Parallelsituations exist,such
as thosebetweenAmandaand Ferdinandand Adolfineand Clas
Henrik(wheneach halfof theeroticcouplebecomesunjustifiably
jealous oftheotherbecause of misinformation and misperception),
betweentheeroticmanipulations byfirst, thequartetoflovers,and
subsequentlyReuterholm, and betweenthe lettersof confession
written by Anckarström and BenjaminCohen (the one tragicand
theothercomic).
But the mosteloquentand intricate use of self-reflexiveparal-
lelismis the elaborationof the prisonermotiffromthe balletLa
Sauvage Sauvée, in whichTintomara, themystically androgynous
maincharacterofthenovel,is stretched outwitha guardsitting on
each ofherhandsand feetto preventherescape fromthechieftain
whohas fallenhopelesslyin love withher.Thissameconfiguration
is repeatedwhenAdolfine,Amanda,Ferdinand,and Clas Henrik,
all of whomhave also fallendesperately in love withher,close in
on her at Lindamötet,all pursuingher so obsessivelywiththeir

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 Romantic Irony and Textual Artifice 135

passionthatshe scampersup a treelikean animalto escape their

divisiveselfisheroticism.The same constellation appearsagainat
thescene of herexecution,whereshe is surrounded by a new set
ofpeoplewhowouldvictimize hererotically, tiedto a treeawaiting
theexecutionsquad,onlyto ascendheavenward to be rejoinedwith
theworldoftheidealto whichshe rightly belongs.The entireroyal
court, that has assembled on bleachers builtespeciallyforthispur-
pose in order to watch her execution, functions also as an ironic
commentary on our own anticipatory titillationas we observethe
same spectacle.
The self-reflective qualityof Drottningens juvelsmyckeis not,
however, limited to its development plot. also extendsinto
of It
paralleldialogues and characters. BothAmandaandAdolfine, while
arguing about their love of Tintomara, and the conspirators against
GustafIII repeatverbatim thewordsoftheircohorts.The situations
in whichtheyfindthemselvesare so hackneyedas not to permit
genuinecreativeresponse,butonlymechanicalrepetitions of plat-
itudinoussentiments. The charactersofthenovelalso "split,dou-
ble, redouble,evaporate,condense,scatter,and converge"(to use
Strindberg's phrase) - Reuterholm and the dancingmasterare the
samecruelandexactingmanipulators ofTintomara, directingevents
frombehindthescenes,and theeroticquartetis replacedby Reu-
terholm insofaras theirdestructive impacton herlifeis concerned.
The novelalso rivetsourattention to theartificialnatureofthetext
in itsoccasionalcomments on thenatureofpoetry:whileescaping
frantically throughthe fantasticsceneryover the catwalkin the
RoyalOpera,Adolfine wonders:"Allthärär val blottpoesinsverk
ellerverktyg . . . menfarornaemellandemäro ickeinbillade!Skall
dennaviggvaraav sa gottträdattdenhâller?Jagvillehellreattdet
vore en verkligâsk. . . ." (p. 99). We too as readersmustknow
thateven whilethenovelis merely"poesins verkellerverktyg,"
thereis nonetheless an elementof deepestearnestnessin thisarti-
fice.
The destruction ofillusion,whichis a majoraspectofthemeth-
odologyof Romanticirony,is a techniquewell knownfromboth
Tieck's comediesand Hoffmann's prose. Like Schlegel,Almqvist
believesthattheRomanticauthoris at liberty to intrude on hiswork
whenever thisserveshispurpose.One wayto achievethisdestruc-
tionof illusion,paradoxicalthoughit may seem, is to stressthe
authenticity of the workto the reader.The introductory frameof

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136 Scandinavian Studies

DrottningensjuvelsmyckepresentsRichard Furumo in the salon of

herrHugo, where he is about to entertainhis listenerswitha series
of papers thathe received on a visitto Ribbingholm,whereAmanda
and Adolfinehave fallenintocompletementaldebility.He disclaims
any responsibilityfor their veracity and emphasizes that he may
have to protect some of the characters in this narrationby using
only Christiannames. At the beginningof the eighthbook he reit-
erates this claim to authenticity:
Viktigtär att pâminnaom vad jag redan i inledningenyttrat,rörandekällorna
förmin berättelse.De bestâ av uppgifter,som jag av mittgästfriavärdsfolk
pâ Ribbingholmfick, deis muntligen,deis pâ papper, sâsom brev, rätte-
gängshandlingar,uppträdenoch samtal, ögonblickligtupptecknade. Följden
har varitatt min framställning mäste bli nâgot fragmentarisk,ofta bestâ av
ströddascener; gâ ur epik in i dramatik,och sâ atertillbakaigen. Även följer
naturligtvis,attjag ej kan ansvara foralla detaljerspunktligthistoriskapâ-
litlighetehuruden kanskeär störreänjagsjälv alltidhoppas. . . . [p. 158-59]

This claim is once again enteredat the close of the book.

Three different formsof authorialintrusionalso substantiatethe
tendencyto bringthe reader out of his fictionalworld back into a
state of detached consciousness. On numerous occasions the nar-
ratoraddresses herrHugo. When he describes Adolfine's climbing
above the stage at the Royal Opera, he stops to informherrHugo:

Hela denna vandringuppförkulisserna syns val herrHugo mindrerirnlig;

jag skulle visst ocksâ kunnaunderstâmigatt diktaen sâdan eller vaga införa
den i en roman. Men det är ej förstagângen verklighetenvisar sig djärvare
an vad kritiken,i sin sans, finnermöjligtoch skickligt.Emellertid,eftervad
det timade,sä kanjag icke hjälpa att det gick försig och var möjligt.- Men
skulle Frans förledaminherre,att även allmänagöradenna historia,sâ ràder
jag här till en mildringav sanningen,som t.e. künde ske sâ, att herrHugo
förstlâtitfrökenAdolfineinhämtafruntimmersgymnastik hos Ling, och nu
hala sig uppförett tag, som kunde ha den godhetenatt hänga nâgonstansi
teatertaket.- Ah! jag glömde att herr Lings gymnastikej fanns 1792! Var
gives en utväg, en hjälp mot kritiken?Finns icke. [p. 100]

And finally,six differenttimes duringthe course of the narrative

Richard Furumo appears in his own stance as narratorto provide
ironic commentaryon the developmentof the work as a creative
piece of fiction:
det synes hava hänt [Amanda och Adolfine]sâsom det ofta sker med hu-
vudpersoner,att de underhändelsernaslopp mâst stiganed tillattbliva blott
personer . . . - men i allmänhetmed hela min historia;sâ skall jag fortfara

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 Romantic Irony and Textual Artifice 137

sa langtde räcka.... [p.

atttvinnapâ mittljusblâagarn,och foratrâdarne
158]
The authorfurthermore stops occasionallybothto addresschar-
acters,as whenhe emphatically advisesAmandato fleewhilethere
is stilltime,and to retardtheactionin orderto add to theintrinsic
suspenseofthetale and to makethereaderconsciousoftheretar-
dationprocess.The mosthumorousand notableexampleof this
lattertechniquetakesplace whenAdolfinebegs Fritzfornews of
theoutcomeofa duelbetweenFerdinandand Clas Henrik.Before
he can beginhis story,thenarrator stopstheactionto tellus some-
thingof Fritz'sbackground, how he gothis nickname, and whyhe
has suchan idiosyncratic fascinationforthehistory ofstreetnames
and buildings in Stockholm.
All of theseexamplesof thedestruction of illusionin thework
are bolsteredby stylisticdevices thatreinforce the ironyof the
novel.Thisparticular ironyusuallytakestheformeitherofinfusion
ofa rhetorical or exaggeratedstylethatundercuts theauthor'scho-
senmodeofexpression, or ofrapidvacillationfromone description
to another,inwhichthescenesarein markedcontrast to each other
because of theirbeautyor theirinsignificance, all of whichserves
to drawthereaderback intoa consciousnessof theartifice before
him. Examples of this techniqueoccur in the transitionsfrom
Clara'ssublimecontemplation ofdeathinBellevuehagetothecomic
sceneofgreedin BenjaminCohen'shouse,fromthelovelyidyllof
Kolmârdento the prisonof Reuterholm's apartments, withtheir
books depictingvarioushumantortures.Hyperbolealso figures
prominently in themixedstyleof Drottningens juvelsmycke, rang-
ing from the mysticalecstasyof Tintomara'scommunion withna-
tureto thetheatrical exaggeration ofthescenesdepicting theactiv-
itiesof the eroticquartet:"Tider av duelleroch dubbeljalousier,
vilkatiderlikvälav intressanta äventyr,vilkatiderav stormkring
lockarnaoch eld i hjärtat?"and thesuddennarrative outburst"O
maskeradförhjärtat!"(pp. 7, 86). And lastly,variousinstancesof
tenseshiftsalso underlinethe fundamentally fictivenatureof the
work.A movement fromthepasttenseintothepresentservesagain
thedual function ofdirectingourattention to theconstructed level
ofthetextand of seducingus intotheworldofimmediacy thatthe
presenttenseeffects.
The ironyof symbolismmustalso be an integralpartof any
workthatis composedin the Romanticspirit,since forthe true

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138 Scandinavian Studies

Romanticpoet everything is "nur Hindeutungauf das Höhere,

Unendliche,Hieroglyphe der EinenewigenLiebe undder heiligen
Lebensfülle derbildendenNatur."9In "Gesprächüberdie Poesie"
Schlegelgoes so faras to maintainthatin ironythingsthatexcite
and delightoursenses seemto be onlya sign,a meansforviewing
the whole. As one wouldimagine,Drottningens juvelsmyckepri-
marilyemployssymbolclustersthatreferto thedisparity between
theearthlyand the divine,betweenthe real and ideal. The image
ofthenumberfiveplayingcardis one thatreverberates throughout
thenovel.We firstencounterit in theballetin whichTintomarais
starring at theRoyalOpera,whichshowshertrappedwitha guard
on each handandfoot,forming a squareofwhichshe is thecenter,
an imagelikenedbyAdolfine to thefiveofspades.WhenTintomara
is out shootingat Kolmârden,she takesa fiveof heartsand blots
outthefourcorners,leavingonlytheone inthecenter(Ferdinand's
heart),whichshe thenshootsaway,an actionironically prefiguring
herown execution.The mysterious card emergesagain,thistime
as a fiveof clubs, whenthe Baronessand the Uncle are playing
cards and the Uncle persistently draws this card, an eventthat
pointsup therolethat he has in makingTintomara an objectforhis
own privategain. In the finalscene of the novel she has indeed
becomethe centerof events,the ace in the numberfiveplaying
card: she is surroundedby hostileforceswho would usurpher
strength and harmony,and a smallred diamond-shaped piece of
is
paper placed on her heart for the execution squad. She has be-
comea pawninthedesignsofall thosewhomeetherandare drawn
towardsher.Butshe is also ourpawn,thecenteroftheconstructed
fictiveworkthatwe are reading.She pointsupwardtowarda vision
of humanharmony thatis totallyaliento themechanization of hu-
manity that characterizes Gustavian society.
The mechanization motifalso manifests itselfin variousother
symbol constructs. People act like machines: Adolfine and Amanda
are likenedto a "pumpverk"in theiralternating ministrationsto
each other,and theconspirators speak and nod in unisonbecause
theyare impotent intermediaries betweenReuterholm, who is the
realforcebehindtheassassination,and Anckarström, who is their
"hit-man."Reuterholm keepsinTintomara's rooma bookdepicting
peoplebeing torturedon a variety ofbizarremachines and arranges
thatTintomarashouldreplace a mannequinso thathis political
schemingmightbe forwarded. Variousmathematical and geomet-

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 Romantic Irony and Textual Artifice 139

ricalformsrecurin thenovelto reinforce therigidityofGustavian

society,squareand triangular configurations speakingto an inflex-
ible perceptionof humanity. This same function is servedby the
costuming in the novel, where people dress to promote particular
eroticor politicalgoals (Adolfine'sconcernwithher masquerade
outfitand the conspirators all dressedalike as dominoesforthe
assassination), withthesingular exceptionofTintomara. She is clad
in outfits whichspeakto herinterior reality,herandrogyny. Even
at herexecutionReuterholm tellsherthathe has had herdressed
"i en klänning somej utmärker dittkön,utomsomgenomsinobe-
stämdhet är en prägelpâ dinegentvetydighet i dettaavseende. . .
sa liknardetpâ en gangkarlrockoch fruntimmerskjortel" (p. 361).
To thisensembleare addedthereddiamond-shaped of
piece paper,
representing hervictimization at thecenterofboththeeventspor-
trayedand theworkitself,and a crownofflowers, representing the
queen'sje welpiece thatshe allegedly has stolen and the Christ-like
martyrdom to whichshe has been subjected.It is significant thata
crownof flowersshouldreplacethejeweled tiara,thatthe hard
symbolsof worldlygainare transformed intoa completely natural,
butveryephemeral,object. The je welpieceforwhichthenovelis
namedundergoesseveralimportant transmogrifications froma sym-
bol of corruption among those in the new government to a crown
ofthorns that willbear Tintomara heavenward to be reunited with
therealmoftheideal.
The same metaphorical disparity is obviousin Almqvist'shan-
dlingofthemaskmotif.Not only mostofthecharactersat one
do
timeor anotherdon masks,but theirmasksalso usurptheirindi-
viduality,controlling themratherthan vice versa. Almqvistre-
counts,"samma mask fortfar att tala ..." and "masken sade
. . ." and "avbrötmasken-följeslagaren" (pp. 78-79). Theirmasks,
likethepersonaeof all the inhabitants of Gustaviansociety,have
replacedtheirindividuality. Thereis a further ironiccommentary
on thefunction of maskswhenthefirstsurgeontriesto convince
the secondthattheyshoulddon masksas surgeonsforthe mas-
queradeball thefollowing evening:"ingenmänniskaskalltro,att
kirurgen klättut sig tillkirurg;man gissaraldrigatt sanningkan
finnasi sanning"(p. 73). Withinthesocietyofthenovelourentire
frameof reference has been reversed.Upon firstcatchingsightof
Tintomara, GustafIII exclaims:"Jagtroddemigse en mask,vack-
rarean nâgonnaturkan härma"(p. 80). Appearancehas become

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140 Scandinavian Studies

realityand realityappearance, and we are forcedto question wheth-

er or not therelies truthwithinthe fictionof the work, despite its
numerousmasks and postures.
Even Tintomara's name itselfreflectsthe disparitybetween the
real and the ideal. Azouras Lazuli Tintomara is a compilationof
various characters whom she has played onstage. Azouras refers,
of course, to the blue of the heavens, Lazuli to the blue gemstone
lapis lazuli, and Tintomaraprobablyto a combinationof the Spanish
tinta ("color") and mare ("sea"). The astral and naturalqualities
associated with Tintomara's name stand in ironicjuxtaposition to
the fact that she received it at the hands of the artificialFrench
neoclassical theatricalsociety of the 1780s and 1790s. The celestial
qualities embodied in Tintomara's personalityare but one of the
manyreferencesto spiritualand physical ascent in the novel. Adol-
fine's climbingescapades in the Royal Opera are likened to those
of "en Dianas nymf,som ifrânklyfteroch brantersegrande nâtt
spetsen av Parnassus" (p. 100), the ironic contentof which is un-
mistakable. This very earthlyand theatricalascent is contrasted
later to Tintomara's flightup into a tree to escape the four lovers
who pursue her and her finalascension into heaven. As readers we
parallel her movements,beginningin the intrigue-ridden world of
Amanda, Adolfine,Ferdinand, and Clas Henrik, followingTinto-
mara out into the naturalbeauty of Kolmârden, to ascend withher
at the end of the novel, if not into heaven, then at the very least
into a state of pure "poetische Reflexion" which is the homeland
of true Romanticirony.
Althoughit may seem paradoxical, works writtenin the spiritof
Romantic irony are oftentimesfar more modern than those com-
posed in the last few decades. The author's implicitdetachmentin
Romantic literatureis accompanied by an abdication of any obli-
gation to guide explicitlythe reader's moral judgments. Tenden-
tiousness is at odds withRomantic irony:on the contrary,thereis
an unarticulatedassumptionof superiorreader intelligenceand per-
ception that one finds lacking in so much literaturethat we are
accustomed to designateas "modern." This may be due to the fact
thata poetic work characterizedby irony,in the sense in whichthe
Romantics used the term,is intendedto be neithera faithfulrep-
resentationof a slice of realitynor an explosion of subjective emo-
tionalism.On the contrary,by means of an aestheticizationof the
contradictionsand absurditiesof life, and by constantlyreflecting
upon and modifyingitself,it purportsto raise the reader and the

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 Romantic Irony and Textual Artifice 141

poet to an insight(givenformin the workof art itself)intothe

irresolvableantithesesthatvictimizeexistence.Onlythepoet and
the readercan profitfromthisplay of contrastsin the workand
createout of thema state of supremepoetic reflection, thereby
transcending into
particularity universality,thedestructive
intothe
constructive, into
separateness unity.
1 René Wellek, A
Historyof Modern CriticismII (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1955), p. 16.
2 Readers interestedin the subject may also wish to consult my forthcoming
article "Friedrich Schlegel and C. J. L. Almqvist:The RomanticNovel as Tapestry
or Labyrinth?" in the summer 1980 issue of Monatshefte. This study includes a
discussion of theirconcepts of transcendentalpoetry,Mischgedicht,"progressive"
art, reader involvement,the "arabesque," and the necessity for a subjective au-
thorialstance and historicaland erotic subject matter.
3 FriedrichSchlegel, "Philosophische Fragmente. Erste Epoch IH," no. 76 in
KritischeFriedrichSchlegel Ausgabe XVIII, ed. Hans Eichner(Munich: Schöningh,
1963), p. 128. All subsequent referencesto Schlegel's writingswill be fromvolume
2 of this edition and will be given in parenthesesafterthe citation,listingfirstthe
fragmentnumber(eg., AF 118) and then page number.The followingabbreviations
apply: LF - "Lyceums- Fragmente," AF - "Athenäums-Fragmente," and Id-
"Ideen."
4 This
essay and Almqvist's theoryof ironyhave been treated on several oc-
casions. Olle Holmberg's C. J. L. Almqvist(Stockholm: Bonniers, 1922) and Lennart
Pagrot's "Almqvist och den romantiskaironien" (Samlaren, 1962) sufferfroman
understandableinabilityto transforma philosophicalconcept intoa series of literary
devices, and theirdiscussions fail thereby.Pagrot does, however, intelligently treat
Almqvist's relationshipto Jean Paul's theoryof ironyand some ironical techniques
in Amorina, but in a ratherunsystematicfashion. Lars Melin's Stil och Struktur i C.
J. L. AlmqvistsAmorina (Stockholm: Almqvistoch Wiksell, 1976) also directsitself
to the same problembut does not sufficiently delineate various kindsof ironybefore
embarkingon a minutelydetailed stylisticanalysis of the novel, a failingthat leads
to numerousmistakesin interpretation.
5 Carl Jonas Love Almqvist,"Även om Humor och Stil däri" in Samlade Skrif-
ter. Fyrafilosofiskaoch estetiskaavhandlingar(Stockholm: Bonniers, 1924), p. 266.
All subsequent referencesto this essay are fromthis editionand are given in paren-
theses afterthe citation.
6 IngridStrohschneider- Kohrs, Die romantischeIronie in Theorie und Gestal-
tung (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1977), p. 88. This is by farthe best treatmentto date of
Romanticirony.
7 S0ren Kierkegaard,Om
BegrebetIroni in Samlade VœrkerI, ed. A. B. Drach-
mann,J. L. Heiberg,and H. O. Lange (Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1962), pp. 265, 270.
8 C. J. L.
Almqvist,Drottningensjuvelsmyckein Samlade Skrifter IV, ed. Fred-
rikBook (Stockholm: Bonniers, 1921), p. 79. All subsequent referenceto Drottning-
ens juvelsmyckewill be fromthiseditionand given in parenthesesafterthe citation.
9 FriedrichSchlegel, "Brief über den Roman," in KritischeFriedrich
Schlegel
Ausgabe II, ed. Hans Eichner (Munich: Schöningh, 1967), p. 334.

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