REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE:

HINDUISM AND HINDU ARCHITECTURE

Allen John Alteza

History of Architecture 3
June 2019
 Hinduism is a religion stemming from the Indus Valley civilisation of India and Pakistan which

flourished around 2000-1500 BCE. Unlike other major world religions, Hinduism does not have a founder

but rather evolved through time adopting different beliefs, forms of worship, and traditions. The names

Hindu and Hinduism are both derived from the word sindhu, the ancient name of the River Indus. The same

origin brought about the term India. In its present form, Hinduism may be considered more as a lifestyle

than a religion that has a standard creed or consistent practices of worship. Hinduism refers to the various

schools of thought and practices that prevails within Indian and Indianised societies. Today, Hinduism is

a major religion in India but has influenced and created other religious sects notably Buddhism and Jainism,

and societies outside of the Indian subcontinent1.

Hinduism is considered as one of the most artistic world religions due to its extravagance and

vibrance in art, physical images of the pantheon, great temple architecture and family temples with the

dame degree of ornamentation and decoration. In the eyes of the non-Hindu, the art of this religion is

considered outlandish and peculiar, commonly depicting multiple human parts or parts from other species.

It should be remembered that Hindu temples do not function like Abrahamic places of worship. Hindu

temples are considered dwellings for the deities to which the temple is dedicated to. For example, temples

dedicated to Shiva are heavily decorated with phallic images and erotica as it is a characteristic related to

the said deity.2 This emphasis on images and idolatry is represented on the Hindu concept of darsan – the

importance of seeing the deities being manifestations of the supreme being Brahman.3

Vedic Period

The earliest foundations of the Hindu religion can be traced back to the Vedic period. This period

is highlighted by the creation of the Vedas, considered as the first sacred texts of Hinduism. The Vedas –

meaning “knowledge” or “wisdom” in Sanskrit, which is the language of ancient Indian texts – are

composed of 4 major texts, the oldest being the Rig Veda and the last being the Upanishads. The Vedas are

1
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 269.
2
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 276.
3
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 277.
a collection of hymns and prayers dedicated to the Hindi pantheon and was read by brahmins. Throughout

the Vedic period, and even after, sacred Hindu texts and literature were made like the Ramayana and the

Mahabharata4.

The Hindu Temple

The Hindu temple is an integral part of Hinduism being the cradle of Hindu art, forms, and styles.

The long and diverse history of the Hindu temple has challenged historians on going about how to record

its architectural evolution. Commonly, writers use two forms of recording its architectural history: based

on time period or based on the patronage of key dynasties. With all the differences appearing between

various forms of analysis, it is commonly accepted that the Hindu temple started in the Vedic period5.

Althoush, the Medieval period in India is well known as the period of Temple Hinduism as many

architectural and sculptural monuments during this period6.

In the Vedic period, worship was focused on the offerings and sacrifices to the deities. For such

rituals, open-air altars and roofed enclosures were constructed. As this practice decline, the housing and

worship of idols in shrines were given greater importance. The practice of idolatry in Hinduism may have

started in the 4th century BCE. Because of this evolution, the primary function of the Hindu temple is to be

an image-shrine for its patron deity. This shrine serves as a place for worship by the followers of Hinduism5.

Structurally, the Hindu temple has several unique elements all supporting its primary function as a house

for the deity/ies. The temple heart is the deity’s sanctuary wherein its image or symbol is located. The

garbhagriha or the inner sanctum of the temple serves as the heart. The temple is often raised on high

plinths with towers – known as shikharas in the north and garbhagriha in the south – for the roof. Southern

Hindu temples have a pyramidal tower whilst the Northern Hindu temples have a parabolic or rounded

tower. Throughout the centuries, the exterior ornamentation of the Hindu temple becomes more complex

representing more narratives and symbols through sculpture. The placement of the sculptures is also

4
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 270.
5
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 278.
6
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 271.
considered such as on the corners, buttresses, towers, and niches. The exterior ornamentation of the temple

emphasises the purpose of the respective temple as a shrine for its deity7.

The tower embodies as the centre of the universe rising upwards with the deity radiating divine

energy from within the temple. The concept of darsan is still evident through the exterior ornamentation of

the temple showing the channels of divine energy. The tower is decorated with karnas (guardian figures),

apsaras (attendant figures usually female), vyalas (mythical creatures), and maithunas (amorous couples)

showing the universe and its activities8.

The capitals of the Hindu temple are of the bracket type, often being unique from other capitals

within the same structure. In simpler terms, no capital is alike. In some Hindu temples, columns are

composed of life-sized figures of Hindu saints or Yalis (lion-like creatures) forming an equivalent to the

Greek caryatides. In some temples, a compound pier of sturdy and light columns is used instead. The

mouldings typical to the Hindu temple is a bulbous swelling. On the columns, overlapping rectangular slabs

are frequently used to adorn the bases, the capitals, and the dagobas. In some circumstances, an

ornamentation of semi-circular open-work moulding inspired by basketwork is applied. The plain torus is

used while the double-convex shapes are to replace the conventional moulding9.

Northern Hindu Style

The plan of the Northern Hindu temple style consists of the vimana or the cell with a rounded roof,

and an uncolonnaded porch. This style existed since 600 CE up till the present time. Each façade showcases

a central rectangular projection, increasing in depth10 until a square is made in the plan. In addition to these

chambers, large enclosures and gateways are incorporated into the design as well. In relation to civil

architecture, palaces, tombs, and ghats (landing places) are located at the riversides most famously the

7
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 279.
8
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 282.
9
Fletcher Banister. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. (London: Bradbury, Agnew, & Co. LD.,
Printers, 1896), 632.
10
Fletcher Banister. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. (London: Bradbury, Agnew, & Co. LD.,
Printers, 1896), 618.
Ganghes. Particularly, the ghats are used as bathing places and identifies with its long staircase facing the

river and bordered by a building on its riverside border11.

Chalukyan Architecture

The Chalukyan style dates from 1000-1200 CE. The style features special elements such as the

position of the temple on a terrace on a height of 3-4 feet. Its vimana is of a star-shaped plan and its roof is

formed by a straight-sided cone with greatly ornamented steps with a vase crown. Elaborate marble slabs

are placed in window openings. Walling stones without mortar used on certain instances9.

Dravidian Architecture

The Dravidian style has flourished between 1350-1750 CE. It is composed of two types: the raths

and the temple. Raths are rock-cut temples built in the monolithic style. Temples, however, have a more

complex structure. Temples in the Dravidian style have a square vimana with a pyramidal-storied roof. The

front façade of the Dravidian temple is the mantapa or the porch. In the interior of the temple, choultries or

halls of 1,000 columns which are placed near the temple. Gorupas or gate pyramids form the entrances to

the Dravidian temple and its enclosures for its shrines12.

Elephanta Caves

The Elephanta Caves are rock-cut temples by the coast of Mumbai dedicated to the Hindu god

Shiva. The cave-temple consists of several reliefs depicting the different aspects of Shiva. Within the

principal chamber of the temple lies the Sadashiva – the triple-headed bust of the Shiva in his guises. The

central head of the Sadashiva is calm and meditative, the left head is emanating ferociousness and

masculinity, and the right head emanates peacefulness and femininity5.

11
Fletcher Banister. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. (London: Bradbury, Agnew, & Co. LD.,
Printers, 1896), 623.
12
Fletcher Banister. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. (London: Bradbury, Agnew, & Co. LD.,
Printers, 1896), 628.
Mamallapuram

Mamallapuram is a rock-cut temple by the shore taking the name “Shore Temple”. It has two major

shrines that are roofed with pyramidal towers of elaborate ornamentation. The ornamentation of the temple

resembles a series of balconies and parapets6.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple

The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple – Kandariya meaning “of the cave” and Mahadeva meaning

“the Great God” – is said to be a fine specimen for observing the most characteristic elements of the Hindu

temple. It was built in the medieval period of India under the Chandella dynasty. Originally, the Kandariya

Mahadeva site consists of 85 temples of which 21 remain today all ranging from the 9th to the 12th century.

The Kandariya temple itself is dedicated to the god Shiva. The temple is raised on a high platform with a

steep entrance staircase. Inside the Kandariya are a series of halls that lead to the sanctuary13. The shikhara

highlights the location of the sanctuary. The halls of the temple were also roofed on the same manner albeit

the main sanctuary has the tallest tower. It is also heavily decorated on the exterior showcasing the universe7.

The Balinese Temple

The Balinese temple is created through a rich history of cultural exchange between India and

Southeast Asia. The origins of the Balinese temple started approximately 2,000 years ago bringing

Hinduism and Buddhism into the island. By the 11th century, Bali has established a strong relationship with

East Java thus adopting the Javanese Hindu customs. The full integration of Hinduism into Balinese society

occurred when the Majapahit Empire, a major Hindi empire in Southeast Asia, conquered Bali. The

influence of Javanese Hinduism can be observed through the similarities between the remains of Hindu

temples in Java and the Balinese temple; the ruins being the representative of the Balinese temple prototype.

Although the Balinese temple is like the Hindu temple in many ways, it has developed its own distinctions

13
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. (Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956), 281.
from the Indian Hindu temple. In the Balinese temple, the gorupa becomes a split gate resembling the

towers of the temple and is found serving as the main entrance to temples and shrines across Bali14.

Bibliography
Fletcher Banister. A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. London: Bradbury, Agnew, &
Co. LD., Printers, 1896.
Ross Leslie. Art and Architecture of the World's Religions. Santa Barbara: Greenwood Press, 1956.
SEAMEOSPAFA. Hindu Arts in Southeast Asia. August20. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4fyXG-
yCW June 14 made in the Philippines.

14
SEAMEOSPAFA. Hindu Arts in Southeast Asia. August20. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f4fyXG-yCW
June 14 made in the Philippines