1 Introduction

1.1 DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS

A structural composite is a material system consisting of two or more phases on a macro-
scopic scale, whose mechanical performance and properties are designed to be superior
to those of the constituent materials acting independently. One of the phases is usually
discontinuous, stiffer, and stronger and is called the reinforcement, whereas the less stiff
and weaker phase is continuous and is called the matrix (Fig. 1.1). Sometimes, because
of chemical interactions or other processing effects, an additional distinct phase called
an interphase exists between the reinforcement and the matrix. The properties of a
composite material depend on the properties of the constituents, their geometry, and the
distribution of the phases. One of the most important parameters is the volume (or weight)
fraction of reinforcement or fiber volume ratio. The distribution of the reinforcement
determines the homogeneity or uniformity of the material system. The more nonuniform
the reinforcement distribution, the more heterogeneous the material, and the higher the

Continuous phase Fig. 1.1 Phases of a composite material.

(matrix)

1
2 1 INTRODUCTION
~ - - - _ ( - ~ _ - - ~ ~ ~ - - i - i l ^ - - ~ ~ - - ~ i i - - c ~~ i ~ = 1_111__ -_1 _ X _ l i . X I X - - - l . ” - “ . I X I I 1 1 1 - - c

scatter in properties and the probability of failure in the weakest areas. The geometry and
orientation of the reinforcement affect the anisotropy of the system.
The phases of the composite system play different roles, which depend on the type and
application of the composite material. In the case of low- to medium-performance com-
posite materials, the reinforcement, usually in the form of short fibers or particles, may
provide some stiffening but only limited strengthening of the material. The matrix, on
the other hand, is the main load-bearing constituent governing the mechanical properties
of the material. In the case of high-performance structural composites, the normally con-
tinuous fiber reinforcement is the backbone of the material, which determines its stiffness
and strength in the fiber direction. The matrix phase provides protection for the sensitive
fibers, bonding, support, and local stress transfer from one fiber to another. The interphase,
although small in dimensions, can play an important role in controlling the failure mech-
anisms, failure propagation, fracture toughness and the overall stress-strain behavior to
failure of the material.

1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Conventional monolithic materials can be classified into three broad categories: metals,
ceramics, and polymers. Composites are combinations of two or more materials from one
or more of these categories. Human development and civilization are closely related to
the utilization of materials. In the stone age primitive man relied primarily on ceramics
(stone) for tools and weapons and on natural polymers and composites (wood). The use of
metals started with gold and proceeded with copper, bronze, and iron. Metals, especially
steel and aluminum, became dominant starting in the last century and continue to the
present. A new trend is taking place presently where polymers, ceramics, and composites
are regaining in relative importance. Whereas in the early years man used natural forms
of these materials, the newer developments and applications emphasize man-made or
engineered materials.’
Historically, the concept of fibrous reinforcement is very old, as quoted in biblical
references to straw-reinforced clay bricks in ancient Egypt (Exodus 5:7). Achilles’s
shield is an example of composite laminate design as described in Homer’s Iliad (verses
468-480). Iron rods were used to reinforce masonry in the nineteenth century, leading to
the development of steel-reinforced concrete. Phenolic resin reinforced with asbestos
fibers was introduced in the beginning of the last century. The first fiberglass boat was
made in 1942, accompanied by the use of reinforced plastics in aircraft and electrical com-
ponents. Filament winding was invented in 1946, followed by missile applications in the
1950s. The first boron and high-strength carbon fibers were introduced in the early 1960s,
followed by applications of advanced composites to aircraft components in 1968. Metal-
matrix composites such as boron/aluminum were introduced in 1970. Dupont developed
Kevlar (or aramid) fibers in 1973. Starting in the late 1970s, applications of composites
expanded widely to the aircraft, marine, automotive, sporting goods, and biomedical
industries. The 1980s marked a significant increase in high-modulus fiber utilization. The
1990s marked a further expansion to infrastructure. Presently, a new frontier is opening,
that of nanocomposites. The full potential of nanocomposites, having phases of dimen-
sions on the order of nanometers, remains to be explored.
 1.3 Applications 3

1.3 A PPL ICAT I0NS

Applications of composites abound and continue to expand. They include aerospace,
aircraft, automotive, marine, energy, infrastructure, armor, biomedical, and recreational
(sports) applications.
Aerospace structures, such as space antennae, mirrors, and optical instrumentation,
make use of lightweight and extremely stiff graphite composites. A very high degree of
dimensional stability under severe environmental conditions can be achieved because
these composites can be designed to have nearly zero coefficients of thermal and hygric
expansion.
The high-stiffness, high-strength, and low-density characteristics make composites
highly desirable in primary and secondary structures of both military and civilian aircraft.
The Boeing 777, for example, uses composites in fairings, floorbeams, wing trailing edge
surfaces, and the empennage (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3).*The strongest sign of acceptance of com-
posites in civil aviation is their use in the new Boeing 787 “Dreamliner” (Fig. 1.4) and the
world’s largest airliner, the Airbus A380 (Fig. 1.5). Composite materials, such as carbon/
epoxy and graphite/titanium, account for approximately 50% of the weight of the Boeing
787, including most of the fuselage and wings. Besides the advantages of durability and
reduced maintenance, composites afford the possibility of embedding sensors for on-board
health monitoring. The Airbus A380 also uses a substantial amount of composites, including
a hybrid glass/epoxy/aluminum laminate (GLARE), which combines the advantages and
mitigates the disadvantages of metals and composites. Figure 1.6 shows a recently certified
small aircraft with the primary structure made almost entirely of composite (composite
sandwich with glass fabric/epoxy skins and PVC foam core). The stealth characteristics of

Fig. 1.2 Boeing 777 commercial air-

craft. (Courtesy of Boeing Commer-
cial Airplane Group.)
4 1 INTRODUCTION

Nose gear doors

Fig. 1.3 Diagram illustrating usage of composite materials in various components of the Boeing 777 aircraft. (Courtesy of
Boeing Commercial Airplane Group.)’

Fig. 1.4 Boeing 787 “Dreamliner”

with most of the fuselage and
wings made of composite materials.
(Courtesy Boeing Commercial Air-
plane Group.)

I
 1.3 Applications 5
1 1 1 - - ~ ~~

Fig. 1.5 Airbus A380 containing a

substantial amount of composite
materials including glass/epoxy/
aluminum (GLARE). (Image by
Navjot Singh Sandhu.)

Fig. 1.6 Small aircraft with primary structure

made of composite materials. (Courtesy of
Dr. Paul Brey, Cirrus Design Corporation.)
6 1 INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1.7 B-2 stealth bomber made

almost entirely of composite mater-
ials. (Courtesy of Dr. R. Ghetzler,
Northrop Corporation.)

carbon/epoxy composites are highly desirable in military aircraft, such as the B-2 bomber
(Fig. 1.7). Small unmanned air vehicles are also made almost entirely of composites
(Fig. 1.8). The solar-powered flying wing Helios shown in Fig. 1.9, used by NASA for
environmental research, was made of carbon and Kevlar fiber composites. It had a wing
span of 75 m (246 ft) and weighed only 708 kg (1557 lb).
Composites are used in various forms in the transportation industry, including auto-
motive parts and automobile, truck, and railcar frames. An example of a composite leaf
spring is shown in Fig. 1.10, made of glass/epoxy composite and weighing one-fifth of the
original steel spring. An example of an application to public transportation is the Cobra
tram in Zurich (Fig. 1.11).
Ship structures incorporate composites in various forms, thick-section glass and
carbon fiber composites and sandwich construction. The latter consists of thin composite
facesheets bonded to a thicker lightweight core. Applications include minesweepers and
 1.3 Applications 7

Fig. 1.8 Unmanned reconnaissance

aircraft made of composite materials.
(Courtesy of MALAT Division, Israel
Aircraft Industries.)

.
Fig. 1.9 Solar-powered flying wing
Helios. (Courtesy of Stuart Hindle,
Sky Tower, Inc.; NASA Dryden
Flight Center photograph.)’

Fig. 1.10 Corvette rear leaf spring made of

glass/epoxy composite weighing 3.6 kg (8 lb)
compared to original steel spring weighing
18.6 kg (41 lb). (First production application of
structural composite in automobiles; courtesy of
Nancy Johnson, GM Research and Development
Center, General Motors.)

I
8 1 INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1.11 Cobra tram in Zurich,

Switzerland, incorporating compos-
ite sandwich construction. (Courtesy
of Alcan Airex AG, photograph by
Bombardier Transportation.)

Fig. 1.12 Royal Danish Navy stan-

dard Flex 300 corvette: length, 55 m;
displacement, 350 tons; materials,
glass/polyester and PVC foam.
(Courtesy of Professor Ole Thomsen,
Aalborg University, Denmark.)

.
corvettes (Figs. 1.12 and 1.13). Composite ship structures have many advantages such as
insulation, lower manufacturing cost, low maintenance, and lack of corrosion.
In the energy production field, carbon fiber composites have been used in the blades
of wind turbine generators that significantly improve power output at a greatly reduced
cost (Fig. 1.14). In offshore oil drilling installations, composites are used in drilling risers
like the one installed in the field in 2001 and shown in Fig. 1.15.
 1.3 Applications 9

Fig. 1.13 Royal Swedish Navy Visby

class corvette: length, 72 m; displace-
ment, 600 tons; materials, carbon/
vinylester and PVC foam. (Courtesy
of Professor Christian Berggreen,
Technical University of Denmark
and Kockums AB, Malmo, Sweden.)

Fig. 1.14 Composite wind turbine blade used for

energy production. (Courtesy of Professor Ole
Thomsen, Aalborg University, Denmark.)
10 1 INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1.15 Composite drilling riser for offshore oil drilling: 15 m (49 ft) long, 59 cm (22 in) inside diameter, 315 bar pressure;
manufactured for Norske Conoco A/S and other oil companies. (Courtesy of Professor Ozden Ochoa, Texas A&M
University, and Dr. Mamdouh M. Salama, ConocoPhillips.)

Biomedical applications include prosthetic devices and artificial limb parts (Figs. 1.16
and 1.17). Leisure products include tennis rackets, golf clubs, fishing poles, skis, and
bicycles. An example of a composite bicycle frame is shown in Fig. 1.18.
Infrastructure applications are a more recent development. Composites are being used
to reinforce structural members against earthquakes, to produce structural shapes for
buildings and bridges, and to produce pipes for oil and water transport. An 80 cm (32 in)
composite pipeline, made of glass/polyester composite is shown in Fig. 1.19. An example
of a composite bridge is the 114 m (371 ft) long cable-stayed footbridge built in Aberfeldy,
Scotland, in 1992 (Fig. 1.20). The deck structure rails and A-frame towers are made of
glass/polyester, and the cables are Kevlar ropes.'
 1.3 Applications 11

Fig. 1.16 Foot and leg prostheses in-

corporating carbon/epoxy components.
(Courtesy of Otto Bock Health Care.)

Fig. 1.17 Carbon/polysulfone hip prosthesis proto-

type (bottom, before implantation; top, implanted
and ready for testing). (Courtesy of Professor Assa
Rotem, Technion, Israel.)
12
I- -1 INTRODUCTION I ~-~~
Fig. 1.18 Bicycle frame made of car-
bon/epoxy composite and weighing
1.36 kg (3 lb), which is much less
than the 5 kg (1 1 lb) weight of the
corresponding steel frame.

' Fig. 1.19 Composite pipe used for transport of drinking

water: 80 cm (32 in) diameter glass/polyester pipe.
(Courtesy of FIBERTEC Fiberglass Pipe Industry, Israel.)
 1.4 Overview of Advantaqes and Limitations of Composite Materials 13
~ ~ - ~ - ~ - ~ ~ - -
-----_1- ~ - ----
~ - ~ - "
Fig. 1.20 Footbridge in Aberfeldy, Scotland, using
composite decking sections. (Courtesy of Maunsell
Ltd., UK.)

.
1.4 OVERVIEW OF ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composites have unique advantages over monolithic materials, such as high strength, high
stiffness, long fatigue life, low density, and adaptability to the intended function of the
structure. Additional improvements can be realized in corrosion resistance, wear resistance,
appearance, temperature-dependent behavior, environmental stability, thermal insulation
and conductivity, and acoustic insulation. The basis for the superior structural performance
of composite materials lies in the high specific strength (strength to density ratio) and high
specific stiffness (modulus to density ratio) and in the anisotropic and heterogeneous char-
acter of the material. The latter provides the composite with many degrees of freedom for
optimum configuration of the material system.
Composites also have some limitations when compared with conventional monolithic
materials. Below is a brief discussion of advantages and limitations of composites and
14 1 INTRODUCTION

conventional structural materials (mainly metals) when compared on the basis of various
aspects, that is, micromechanics, macromechanics, material characterization, design and
optimization, fabrication technology, maintenance and durability, and cost effectiveness.

1.4.1 Micromechanics
When viewed on the scale of fiber dimensions, composites have the advantage of high-
stiffness and high-strength fibers. The usually low fracture toughness of the fiber is
enhanced by the matrix ductility and the energy dissipation at the fibedmatrix interface.
The stress transfer capability of the matrix enables the development of multiple-site and
multiple-path failure mechanisms. On the other hand, the fibers exhibit a relatively high
scatter in strength. Local stress concentrations around the fibers reduce the transverse ten-
sile strength appreciably.
Conventional materials are more sensitive to their microstructure and local irregular-
ities that influence the brittle or ductile behavior of the material. Their homogeneity makes
them more susceptible to flaw growth under long-term cyclic loading.

1.4.2 Macromechanics
In macromechanical analysis, where the material is treated as quasi-homogeneous, its
anisotropy can be used to advantage. The average material behavior can be controlled and
predicted from the properties of the constituents. However, the anisotropic analysis is more
complex and more dependent on the computational procedures. On the other hand, the
analysis for conventional materials is much simpler due to their isotropy and homogeneity.

1.4.3 Mechanical Characterization

The analysis of composite structures requires the input of average material characteristics.
These properties can be predicted on the basis of the properties and arrangement of the
constituents. However, experimental verification of analysis or independent characteriza-
tion requires a comprehensivetest program for determination of a large number (more than
ten) of basic material parameters. On the other hand, in the case of conventional isotropic
materials, mechanical characterization is simple, as only two elastic constants and two
strength parameters suffice.

1.4.4 Structural Design, Analysis, and Optimization

Composites afford the unique possibility of designing the material, the manufacturing
procedure, and the structure in one unified and concurrent process. The large number of
degrees of freedom available enables simultaneous material optimization for several given
constraints, such as minimum weight, maximum dynamic stability, cost effectiveness,
and so on. However, the entire process requires a reliable database of material properties,
standardized structural analysis methods, modeling and simulation techniques, and models
for materials processing. The numerous options available make the design and optimiza-
tion process more involved and the analysis more complex. In the case of conventional
 1.4 Overview of Advantaqes and Limitations of Composite Materials 15

materials, optimization is limited usually to one or two geometric parameters, due to the
few degrees of freedom available.

1.4.5 Manufacturina Technoloav

The fabrication process is one of the most important steps in the application of composite
materials. Structural parts, rather than generic material form, are fabricated with relative-
ly simple tooling. A variety of fabrication methods suitable for various applications are
available. They include autoclave molding, filament winding, pultrusion, fiber placement,
and resin transfer molding (RTM). Structural components consisting of different mater-
ials, such as honeycomb sandwich structures, can be manufactured in one step by the
so-called cocuring process. Thus, the number of parts to be assembled and joints required
can be reduced significantly. On the negative side, composite fabrication is still dependent
to some extent on skilled hand labor with limited automation and standardization. This
requires more stringent, extensive, and costly quality control procedures.
In the case of conventional materials, material and structure fabrication are two sepa-
rate processes. Structures usually necessitate complex tooling and elaborate assembly, with
multiple elements and joints.

1.4.6 Maintainability, Serviceability, and Durability

Composites can operate in hostile environments for long periods of time. They have long
fatigue lives and are easily maintained and repaired. However, composites and especially
thermoset polymer composites suffer from sensitivity to hygrothermal environments.
Service-induced damage growth may be internal, requiring sophisticated nondestructive
techniques for its detection and monitoring. Sometimes it is necessary to apply protective
coatings against erosion, surface damage, and lightning strike.
Conventional materials, usually metals, are susceptible to corrosion in hostile envi-
ronments. Discrete flaws and cracks may be induced in service and may grow and propa-
gate to catastrophic failure. Although detection of these defects may be easier, durable
repair of conventional materials is not simple.

1.4.7 Cost Effectiveness

One of the important advantages of composites is reduction in acquisition and/or life cycle
costs. This is effected through weight savings, lower tooling costs, reduced number of
parts and joints, fewer assembly operations, and reduced maintenance. These advantages
are somewhat diluted when one considers the high cost of raw materials, fibers, prepreg
(resin preimpregnated fibers), and auxiliary materials used in fabrication and assembly of
composite structures. Composite manufacturing processes are expensive, because they are
not yet fully developed, automated, and optimized. They are labor intensive, may result in
excessive waste, and require costly quality control and inspection. Affordability remains
the biggest factor controlling further utilization of composites:
In the case of conventional structural materials, the low cost of raw materials is more
than offset by the high cost of tooling, machining, and assembly.
16 1 INTRODUCTION

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE AND OBJECTIVES OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The study of composites is a philosophy of material and process design that allows for the
optimum material composition, along with structural design and optimization, in one con-
current and interactive process. It is a science and technology requiring close interaction
of various disciplines such as structural design and analysis, materials science, mechanics
of materials, and process engineering. The scope of composite materials research and
technology consists of the following tasks:

.
1 investigation of basic characteristics of the constituent and composite materials
2. material optimization for given service conditions
3. development of effective and efficient fabrication procedures and evaluation of
their effect on material properties
4. development of analytical procedures and numerical simulation models for deter-
mination of composite material properties and prediction of structural behavior
5. development of effective experimental methods for material characterization,
stress analysis, and failure analysis
6. nondestructive evaluation of material integrity and structural reliability
7 . assessment of durability, flaw criticality, and life prediction

1.6 CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

The technology of composite materials has experienced a rapid development in the last
four decades. Some of the underlying reasons and motivations for this development are

1. significant progress in materials science and technology in the area of fibers, poly-
mers, and ceramics
2. requirements for high-performance materials in aircraft and aerospace structures
3. development of powerful and sophisticated numerical methods for structural
analysis using modem computer technology
4. the availability of powerful desktop computers for the engineering community.

The initial driving force in the technology development, dominated by the aerospace
industry, was performance through weight savings. Later, cost competitiveness with more
conventional materials became equally important. In addition to these two requirements,
today there is a need for quality assurance, reproducibility, and predictability of behavior
over the lifetime of the structure.
New developments continue in all areas. For example, new types of carbon fibers have
been introduced with higher strength and ultimate strain. Thermoplastic matrices are used
under certain conditions because they are tough, have low sensitivity to moisture effects,
and are more easily amenable to mass production and repair. Woven fabric and short-fiber
reinforcements in conjunction with liquid molding processes are widely used. The design
of structures and systems capable of operating in severe environments has spurred
intensive research in high-temperature composites, including high-temperature polymer-
matrix, metal-matrix, ceramic-matrix and carbon/carbon composites. Another area of
 References 17

interest is that of the so-called smart composites and structures incorporating active and
passive sensors. A new area of growing interest is the utilization of nanocomposites and
multiscale hybrid composites with multifunctional characteristics.
The utilization of conventional and new composite materials is intimately related to
the development of fabrication methods. The manufacturing process is one of the most
important stages in controlling the properties and assuring the quality of the finished
product. A great deal of activity is devoted to intelligent processing of composites aimed
at development of comprehensive and commercially viable approaches for fabrication of
affordable, functional, and reliable composites. This includes the development and use of
advanced hardware, software, and online sensing and controls.
The technology of composite materials, although still developing, has reached a stage
of maturity. Prospects for the future are bright for a variety of reasons. The cost of the basic
constituents is decreasing due to market expansion. The fabrication process is becoming
less costly as more experience is accumulated, techniques are improved, and innovative
methods are introduced. Newer high-volume applications, such as in the automotive
industry and infrastructure, are expanding the use of composites greatly. The need for
energy conservation motivates more uses of lightweight materials and products. The need
for multifunctionality is presenting new challenges and opportunities for development
of new material systems, such as nanocomposites with enhanced mechanical, electrical,
and thermal properties. The availability of many good interactive computer programs and
simulation methods makes structural design and analysis simpler and more manageable for
engineers. Furthermore, the technology is vigorously enhanced by a younger generation of
engineers and scientists well educated and trained in the field of composite materials.

REFERENCES

1 . B. T. Astrom, Manufacturing of Polymer Composites, Chapman and Hall, London, 1992.

2. G . E. Mabson, A. J. Fawcett, G. D. Oakes, “Composite Empennage Primary Structure Service
Experience,”Proc. of Third Canadian Intern. Composites Conf.,Montreal, Canada, August 2001.
3. “Solar-Powered Helios Completes Record-Breaking Flight,” High Perlformance Composites,
September/October2001, p. 11.
4. C. W. Schneider,“Composite Materials at the Crossroads-Transition to Affordability,”Proc. of
ICCM-11, Gold Coast, Australia, 14-18 July 1997, pp. 1-257-1-265.