Structured Query Language

SQL is a database language used to create, manipulate and control the access to the
Database objects. SQL is a non procedural language used to access relational databases. It
is a flexible, efficient language with features designed to manipulate and examine relational
data.

SQL is only used for definition and manipulation of database objects. It cannot be used for
application development like form definitions, creation of procedures etc...For that you need
to necessarily have some 3gl languages such as cobol or 4gl languages such as Dbase to
provide front-end support to the database.

Key features of SQL are:

 Non procedural language

 Unified Language
 Common language for all Relational databases. ( Syntax may change between
different RDBMS )

SQL is made of Three sub-languages such as:

 Data Definition language (DDL)

 Data Manipulation language (DML)
 Data control language (DCL)

Data Definition Language (DDL): allows you to define database objects at the
conceptual level. It consists of commands to create objects and alter the structure of
objects, such as tables, views, indexes etc.. Commonly used DDL statements are CREATE,
DROP etc..

If you want to create a table Student,then use the following syntax

CREATE TABLE STUDENT

( STUDENT_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,
STUDENT_NM VARCHAR(30),
COURSE_ID VARCHAR(15) ,
PHONE VARCHAR(10) ,
ADDRESS VARCHAR(50) );

To drop a table from the database

DROP TABLE STUDENT;

Data Manipulation language(DML): Allows you to retrieve or update data within a

database. It is used for query, insertion, deletion and updating of information stored in
databases. Eg: Select, Insert, Update, Delete.

STUDENT_ID STUDENT_NM COURSE_ID PHONE ADDRESS

972-888- 888, North Central Exp, Dallas,
1001 JAMES Oracle
9018 TX- 75089
 MSSql 972-678- 567, Preston Road, Dallas, TX -
1002 JIM
Server 8909 75240
214-571- 1234, Elm Street, Dallas, TX -
1003 BRUCE Java
1567 75039

Select statement:
Select statement in SQL language is used to display certain data from the table.For
example:- if you want to know what course Jim is taking; Select statement fetches you
the information you want,when you use the information you have. So,in the above scenario
the information you have is student_nm as Jim and and the information you want is
course_id, the intersection of those two columns in that table is what you are looking for.

SELECT (what you want)

FROM (which tables)
WHERE (what you have )

Now the select statement to know the course_id Jim looks like this:

SELECT COURSE_ID
FROM STUDENT
WHERE STUDENT_NM = 'JIM'

You will get the result as:

COURSE_ID
MSSql Server

If you want to see all the rows in the table then your select will be:

SELECT * FROM STUDENT;

If you would like to show student_nm and address who is attending Oracle course in the
form of a report then your select will look like:

SELECT STUDENT_NM, ADDRESS

FROM STUENT
WHERE COURSE_ID = 'Oracle'

The result will be

STUDENT_NM ADDRESS
JAMES 888, North Central Exp, Dallas, TX- 75089

Insert Statement

Insert statement is used to insert a new row into the table. For example:- If a new student
DAVE is joining Java course then,use the INSERT SQL statement.
INSERT INTO STUDENT (STUDENT_ID, STUDENT_NM, COURSE_ID,PHONE, ADDRESS )
VALUES
(1004, 'DAVE', 'Java','972-912-4008', '567, Washington Ave, Dallas - 75543' )

after executing the insert statement,your table should look like below when you issue a
select from student table:

STUDENT_ID STUDENT_NM COURSE_ID PHONE ADDRESS

972-888- 888, North Central Exp, Dallas,
1001 JAMES Oracle
9018 TX- 75089
MSSql 972-678- 567, Preston Road, Dallas, TX -
1002 JIM
Server 8909 75240
214-571- 1234, Elm Street, Dallas, TX -
1003 BRUCE Java
1567 75039
972-912- 567, Washington Ave, Dallas -
1004 DAVE Java
4008 75543

Update Statement

is used to change the existing information in the table.For example:-If DAVE moved to
another address then we need to change the ADDRESS column for DAVE's record.If the new
address is 146, Dallas Parkway, Dallas - 75240 then your update should be:

UPDATE STUDENT SET ADDRESS = '146, Dallas Parkway, Dallas - 75240'

WHERE STUDENT_NM = 'DAVE'

In order to make sure you updated the Address column for DAVE issue following SQL

SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE STUDENT_NM = 'DAVE'

then you should see the following result

STUDENT_ID STUDENT_NM COURSE_ID PHONE ADDRESS

972-912- 146, Dallas Parkway, Dallas -
1004 DAVE Java
4008 75240

Delete Statement

is used to delete a row from the table ie remove records from the table.For example:JAMES
moved to different city, and he does not want to take the course.In order to remove
JAMES's record from the table we use the DELETE statement

DELETE STUDENT
WHERE STUDENT_NM = 'JAMES'

once you delete the record and you select all the information from the student table you
should see the following information:
STUDENT_ID STUDENT_NM COURSE_ID PHONE ADDRESS
MSSql 972-678- 567, Preston Road, Dallas, TX -
1002 JIM
Server 8909 75240
214-571- 1234, Elm Street, Dallas, TX -
1003 BRUCE Java
1567 75039
972-912- 567, Washington Ave, Dallas -
1004 DAVE Java
4008 75543

If you dont include where clause in delete statment then it will remove all the rows from the
table.

Data control language(DCL)

In RDBMS one of the main advantages is the security for the data in the database. You can
allow some user to do a specific operation or all operations on certain objects. Examples for
DCL statements are GRANT, REVOKE statements.

GRANT is used to Grant a permission to an user so that the user can do that operation.
REVOKE is used to take back that permission from that user on that object.

For example we have two users JAMES and DAVID

If JAMES created a table called ITEMS then JAMES becomes the owner of that table.
DAVID cannot access ITEMS table because he is not the owner of that table.
DAVID can access ITEMS if JAMES gives the permission on his table.
JAMES can give different types of access like Select, Update, Delete and Insert
on ITEMS table to DAVID.
For example:-
If JAMES wants to provide only Select on ITEMS to DAVID then he can issue:
GRANT SELECT ON ITEMS TO JAMES

If JAMES wants to provide only Select and Insert on ITEMS to DAVID then he can issue:
GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON ITEMS TO JAMES

If JAMES wants to provide all the operations on ITEMS to DAVID then he can issue:
GRANT ALL ON ITEMS TO JAMES

Once you provide all permissions on an object to an user then indirectly he becomes the
owner and can do any manipulation to the table.

Oracle datatypes

Data in a database is stored in the form of tables. Each table consists of rows and columns to
store the data.
A particular column in a table must contain the same type of data.For example:

COUNTRY
PLAYER_NAME(char) DATE_OF_BIRTH(date) ROOM_NO(number)
(char)
AGASSI USA 10/12/1969 1004
WILLIAM USA 01/15/1975 1006
JIM RUSSIA 05/25/1980 1007
HINGIS SWITZERLAND 06/25/1979 1009

Every column has certain information, PLAYER_NAME is a char column. DATE_OF_BIRTH

is a Date column, ROOM_NO is a number column.

Different datatypes available in Oracle database:

CHAR: To store character type of data,for example: name of a person (you can save any thing in
character field)

VARCHAR: Same as CHAR. The only difference between CHAR and VARCHAR is the way
the database saves the data.

To understand the difference better we will take the following example.

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (EMP_NO NUMBER(4), ENAME CHAR(15))

EMP_NO ENAME
888 CLARK
889 KING
890 DAVID COOPER

As Ename column defined as CHAR(15) every value you put it that column will occupy all 15
bytes ie CLARK is 5 bytes string,so the database pads 10 spaces.

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (EMP_NO NUMBER(4), ENAME VARCHAR(15))

EMP_NO ENAME
888 CLARK
889 KING
890 DAVID COOPER

Here as Ename is defined as VARCHAR(15) it occupies only the required space. so in the above
table ename CLARK occupies only 5 bytes in the database.

So what are the advantages and disadvantages?.The thumb rule here is that if you are using a
char column as primary key then it better be a char field. If you are using a column to have
comments then you must use varchar.
NUMBER: Used to store the numbers, for example:If you want to store employee numbers then
you define the column's data type as number. If you want to define a column to store currency
then you can define the column as NUMBER(7,2).

DATE: Used to store the date,like Date of birth of a person, join date in a company etc.

LONG: to store the variable char length.

RAW:

LONG RAW: store binary data of variable length.

LOB: Large objects to store binary files.

In addition oracle 8 supports CLOB, BLOB and BFILE

CLOB - A table can have multiple columns of this type.

BLOB - can store large binary objects such as graphics, video and sound files.

BFILE - stores file pointers to LOB managed by file systems external to the database.

Constraints

When you bind a business rule to a column in the table then those rules are called the
Constraints. Constraints are defined while creating the table. Say for example, you cannot have
an employee who does not have a name, then employee name column in employee table should
be a NOT NULL column. The NOT NULL is a constraint.

The following table shows the constraint types and short descriptions.

Constraint
Description
Type
NOT NULL you must provide the value in that column. you cannot leave that column blank
No duplicate values allowed, for example Empno in Employee table should be
PRIMARY KEY
unique
CHECK checks the value and controls the inserting and updating values.
DEFAULT Assigns a default value if no value is given.
REFERENCES To maintain the referential integrity (Foreign Key)

Examples for some of the rules usually implement through the business rules.

NOT NULL
If we have a business rule saying that all customers should have a name, we cannot have any
customer with out a name. So to implement that business rule we can create customer table and
specify customer name column as NOT NULL (constraint)
Example
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (EMPNO NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY, ENAME
VARCHAR(4) NOT NULL);

CHECK
Check constraint is used where we define a condition on a column. Check constraint consists of
the keyword

col_name datatype CHECK (col_name in(value1, value2))

Example
If you have a business rule saying that all employees in the organization should get atleast $500
then we can use CHECK constraint while creating table.

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE ( EMPNO NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY, ENAME

VARCHAR(4) NOT NULL, SALARY NUMBER(7,2) CHECK (SALARY > 500) );

DEFAULT
While inserting a row into a table without giving values for every column, SQL must insert a
default value to fill in the excluded columns, or the command will be rejected. The most
common default value is NULL. This can be used with columns not defined with a NOT NULL.

Default value assigned to a column while creating the table using CREATE TABLE operation.

Example
CREATE TABLE ITEM (ITEM_ID NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY, ITEM_NAME
VARCHAR(15),
ITEM_DESC VARCHAR(100), QOH NUMBER(4) DEFAULT 100)

Assigning a default value 0 for numeric columns makes the computation.

PRIMARY KEY
Primary Key in a table is a unique identifier of a row. For example,if you are maintaning the
customer profiles, you should assign particular number to each one. So customer_number should
be defined as a Primary key in Customer table.

REFERENCES
is a Foreign key. A foreign key column value refers a column in another table to check whether
the value exists or not.
UNIQUE
The values entered into a column are unique ie no duplicate values exists.This constraint ensures
business that there is no duplicates allowed.

Data Definition Language

It's a part of SQL langugae which creates a database object. Examples of database objects are
tables, procedures, functions, packages etc. When you create a table or drop a table you are
modifying the structure of the database and that is the reason why it is called data definition
language. When you issue a create or alter or drop sql statements database internally does a
commit,and that is why we cannot include the DDL as part of the transaction.Following are a
few DDL statements.

Create table

Create table course (

course_id not null number(5) primary key,
course_name not null varchar2(30),
start_date Date);

Alter table course modify ( start_date not null date );

Alter table course add ( instructor_id null );

Drop table course

Create table course ( course_id not null primary key, course_name varchar(30), start_Date date )
tablespace=course_info storage (initial 1024k next 1024 pctincrease=10)

Data Manipulation Language

Data Manipulation in RDBMS means maintaining the data in the database. There are three DML
statements:Insert,Update and Delete. INSERT statment is used to insert a new record into a table.
The UPDATE statement is used to change the existing information of a table. The DELETE
statement is used to remove certain information from the table.

We will take an example here:If you are running an apartment complex where you rent
apartments,the day to day record maintenance would look like this.

tenant_id aptno tenant_name home_phone work_phone apt_rent no_of_pets

1000 888 SMITH 881-890-9000 767-908-5432 900 1
1001 889 STEVE 881-909-8971 898-543-9032 890 0
1002 890 BILL 781-897-9011 567-891-9108 880 2

INSERT Statement

If a person named JAMES rented an apartment,we need to add his information into the table. We
have to do an INSERT because the information does not exist in the table as of now.The
following information has to be entered into the database:-name = JAMES aptno = 891,
home_phone as 676-789-9011, work_phone as 777-567-1234, apt_rent = 880 and no_of_pets as
1.

So now how we can write the INSERT statement.

INSERT into TENANT

(tenant_id, aptno, tenant_name, home_phone, work_phone, apt_rent, no_of_pets )
VALUES
(1003, 891, 'JAMES','676-789-9011','777-567-1234', 880, 1 )

After executing the insert statement the table now should have four rows as shown below

tenant_id aptno tenant_name home_phone work_phone apt_rent no_of_pets

1000 888 SMITH 881-890-9000 767-908-5432 900 1
1001 889 STEVE 881-909-8971 898-543-9032 890 0
1002 890 BILL 781-897-9011 567-891-9108 880 2
1003 891 JAMES 676-789-9011 777-567-1234 880 1

Following shown are the different syntaxes available INSERT SQL syntaxes.

Syntax1
INSERT into table_name values (col1, col2, col3....) values (value1, value2, value3.....)

In the syntax 1 we need to specify the column names of a table and values respectively. In the
application development its more recommened to use this syntax while doing inserts into the
table, reason being if you added a column in the table then it wont give an error except the value
for that column wont be supplied and program will run fine.

Syntax2
INSERT into table_name values ( value1, value2.....)

In the Syntax 2 we wont specify the column names and pass all the values to the columns
respectively.
Syntax3
INSERT itno table_name (col1, col2, col3...)
SELECT col1, col2, col3........ FROM table

In the Syntax 3 we can insert multiple rows using one INSERT into statement where as in Syntax
1 and Syntax 2 you can insert only one row at a time.

UPDATE Statement

Now we will go the next DML statement UPDATE. Update is used to change the existing value
in a column of a table. As JAMES work_phone number changed to 765-123-9087 from 777-567-
1234 then we need to change that information in JAMES record in the table.

UPDATE TENANT SET work_phone = '765-123-9087'

WHERE tenant_name = 'JAMES'.

After executing theUPDATE statement the table now should have four rows as shown below.

tenant_id aptno tenant_name home_phone work_phone apt_rent no_of_pets

1000 888 SMITH 881-890-9000 767-908-5432 900 1
1001 889 STEVE 881-909-8971 898-543-9032 890 0
1002 890 BILL 781-897-9011 567-891-9108 880 2
1003 891 JAMES 676-789-9011 777-567-1234 880 1

Syntax

UPDATE (table_name) SET (colname1 = Value1, colname2 = Value2.......)

[WHERE clause]

If you wont include WHERE clause in your UPDATE statement then it will update all the rows
in the table, so you should be very careful when you are writing UPDATE statements in work.

DELETE Statement

SMITH moves out of the apartment complex, so now we do not need to have his information in
the table. You can use DELETE Sql statement.

DELETE TENANT
WHERE tenant_name = 'SMITH'

After executing the DELETE statement the table now should have three rows as shown below.

tenant_id aptno tenant_name home_phone work_phone apt_rent no_of_pets

1001 889 STEVE 881-909-8971 898-543-9032 890 0
1002 890 BILL 781-897-9011 567-891-9108 880 2
1003 891 JAMES 676-789-9011 777-567-1234 880 1

Syntax

DELETE FROM (table_name)

[WHERE clause]

If you wont include WHERE clause in your DELETE statement then you delete all the rows in
the table, so you should be very careful when you are writing DELETE statements in work.

Some of the examples of INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE statements.

Insert SQL examples

Example 1
INSERT into BOOKS ( book_id, book_nm, author, price ) values ( 234, 'Oracle', 'Smith', 45 );

Example 2
INSERT into BOOKS values ( 235, 'C++','Austin', 50);

Example 3
INSERT into BOOKS (book_id, book_nm, author, price )
SELECT book_no, book_name, author_name, book_price FROM legacy_books
WHERE author_name = 'BILL';

Update SQL Examples

Example 1
UPDATE BOOKS SET book_nm = 'C++ for Experts'

Example 2
UPDATE BOOKS SET book_nm = 'Oracle'
WHERE book_no = 103

Example 3
UPDATE BOOKS SET price = price - 5
WHERE author in ( SELECT author FROM authors WHERE state = 'CA')

Example 4
UPDATE BOOKS SET price = price - 2
WHERE exists ( select author FROM auhtors WHERE books.author = author.author )

DELETE SQL Examples

Example 1
DELETE BOOKS

Example2
DELETE BOOKS WHERE book_no = 235

Example 3
DELETE BOOKS WHERE author in ( SELECT author FROM authors WHERE state = 'TX')

Create a table called PATIENT so that we can do Data manipulation like INSERT, UPDATE
and DELETE statements.

Patient_id Number(4) Primary Key

Patient_name Varchar(35) Not Null,
Primary_doctor Number(4) Foreign Key,
Patient_dob Date Not Null,
Patient_phone Char(10) NULL

Using INSERT statements insert the following rows into PATIENT table.

PATIENT _ID PATIENT_NAME PRIMARY_DOC PATIENT_DOB PATIENT_PHONE

1500 SMITH ABDUL 10/10/1964 312-896-9632
1501 KTMAN JON 02/02/1960 312-666-1478
1502 WATER ABDUL 03/03/1955 312-885-9632
1503 MARINO JON 09/02/1975 312-555-7412
1504 DAWKINS DUPOINT 05/07/1978 312-951-7532

Change the patient name SMITH to RODMAN whose dob is 10/10/1964 and primary doctor is
ABDUL.

Change the phone number of WATER from 312-666-1478 to 312-567-8988.

Delete patient SMITH from the PATIENT table.

NULL VALUES

According to CODD's rule any RDBMS should support NULL value.

What is a null value?

Its a unknown value or an undefined value. How you will insert a NULL value into table.
For example if you have a table called APT_ENQUIRY with the following structure.

ENQ_NAME char(25) not null

PHONE char(10) not null
ADDRESS1 varchar(30) not null
ADDRESS2 varchar(30)
CITY varchar(30) not null
STATE char(2) not null
ZIP char(5) not null

If you see the address2 column for MARK there is no value, that is NULL value. How you will
insert a null value when its undefined. If you omit the column name in your insert statement
while inserting a row then that column will have a NULL value, you cannot omit the not null
column from the insert statement.

ENQ_NAME PHONE ADDRESS1 ADDRESS2 CITY STATE ZIP

SMITH 675-098-3478 KING CORNER 9th STREET NEW YORK NY 01123
MARK 972-890-7654 QUEEN STREET DALLAS TX 75240

Considerations while dealing with NULL's.

NULL value is different from simply assigning a column the value 0 or a blank.

It cannot compared using the relational or logical operators.

select * from apt_enquiry where address2 = null - This is wont fetch any rows.

select * from apt_enquiry where address2 is null - This is right.

select * from apt_enquiry where address2 <> null - This is wrong.

select * from apt_enquiry where address2 is not null - This is right

Select Statement

is the powerful SQL Command we use the most in the database activity. Select statement is used
to retrieve the data from the tables.

Employee Table with data (Following examples and selects based on the following table
(EMP))

empno ename dob mgr deptno job sal comm

 1001 Jones 10/10/1967 1013 10 MANAGER 4000 500
1002 Dave 10/10/1950 1001 10 CLERK 3000
1003 Jhonson 08/06/1955 1013 20 MANAGER 4000 50
1004 David 06/10/1960 1003 20 SALESMAN 3500

Syntax

SELECT col_name, col_name.................

FROM table_name
WHERE condition

Selecting all columns

We can select all the columns from a table using * operator in SELECT statement.

SELECT * FROM EMP;

Displays all the rows from the emp table. Usually we can write this sort of select in the
development environment, we should not write this sort of select in the production environment.

Selecting particular columns.

We can select particular columns from a table. Suppose if we want to select empno, ename and
sal column values from the EMP table then we can write the SELECT as follows.

SELECT empno, ename, sal FROM Emp;

Column Aliases

Usually if we select a column from a table then the column heading is same as the column name,
if we want to change the column header for display purpose then we have to use Aliases for the
column names. If the alias includes the space in it then we should include with in the double
quotes.

SELECT empno "Employee Number",

ename "Employee Name",
sal Salary
FROM Emp

Specific Rows

If we want to display all employee numbers and names who works in deptno 10 then how we
should write the select. Here we need to display empno, ename so the columns in SELECT
clause is empno, ename. In the FROM clause we need to specify the table name ie EMP. What is
the condition? needs to display the employees works in deptno 10. So we need to write the
WHERE clause in the SELECT. Here we are selecting specific rows with in the table. So our
Select statement will be

SELECT empno, ename

FROM Emp
WHERE deptno = 10;

Ordering Rows

If we want to display the result set in an order then we include the ORDER BY CLAUSE in the
Select statement. Display the employee names, salary information and sort the employee names
alphabetically.

SELECT ename, sal

FROM Emp
ORDER BY ename;

Suppose we want to display the result set by salary in descending order then

SELECT ename, sal

FROM Emp
ORDER BY sal DESC;

By default the order by is ASC ie asending.

Expressions in Select statement

In order to get the sum of salary and commission we need to add two columns ie sal and comm.
So you can manipulate in the Select statement itself.

SELECT ename, sal, comm, sal + comm "Total"

FROM emp;

If comm column is null then if we add sal to it, it ends up with a null value. So we can use NVL
function.

SELECT ename, sal, comm, sal + nvl(comm,0) "Total"

FROM emp;

If you want to display all the employees who has their employee numbers as even number.

SELECT empno
FROM emp
WHERE mod(empno,2) = 0

Concatinating Strings
Suppose if we want to display the employee name and salary information as int the follwing
format
JONES works in deptno 10

then in the above shown format JONES is ename column and 10 is deptno column from emp
table. In the JONES works in deptno 10, the highlighted text should get repeated for all the
rows then we should concatenate the ename information with the deptno value. To concate the
two values in SQL you can use || or CONCAT function.

SELECT ename || ' works in deptno ' || deptno

FROM emp
or

SELECT ename CONCAT 'works in deptno' CONCAT deptno

FROM emp

SIMPLE JOINS

To demonstrate the Joins between two tables in SQL, we are going to take the following two
tables called STATE and CITY. In STATE table STATE_CD is the primary key and in CITY
table STATE_CD and CITY_NAME makes the primary key.

STATE table

STATE_CD STATE_DESC
AK ARKANSAS
TX TEXAS
NY NEW YORK
NJ NEW JERSY

CITY table

STATE_CD CITY_NAME POPULATION

AK Little Rock 250000
AK Hot Springs 8000
TX Dallas 1000000
TX Irving 100000
TX Austin 1500000
NY New York 30000000
NJ New Jersy 1500000
NJ Paris 10000
We can join two tables if there is a common column exists in both. In the above example we
have a common column called STATE_CD, so we can percorm join on these tables.

Say you want to display the CITY_NM, POPULATION, STATE_DESC from the above two
tables.

Here we go, CITY_NM and POPULATION columns exists in CITY table, STATE_DESC
column is in STATE table. We are going to show information from two different tables, so in the
FROM clause of SELECT statement we should include two tables.

SELECT CITY_NM, POPULATION, STATE_DESC

FROM CITY, STATE

WHERE CITY.STATE_CD = STATE.STATE_CD;

The result for the above query

CITY_NM POPULATION STATE_DESC

Little Rock 250000 ARKANSAS
Hot Springs 8000 ARKANSAS
Dallas 1000000 TEXAS
Irving 100000 TEXAS
Austin 1500000 TEXAS
New York 30000000 NEW YORK
New Jersy 1500000 NEW JERSY
Paris 10000 NEW JERSY

How this JOIN works. Each database engine chooses the different ways to process the result set.
To understand the JOIN concept better we will take the above example. In the FROM clause we
have CITY, STATE tables, so it merges the rows from two tables and makes it as one temporary
table in the server memory area, so it will be like

CITY.STATE_ CITY.CITY_NA CITY.POPULAT STATE.STATE STATE.STATE_D

CD ME ION _CD ESC
AK Little Rock 250000 AK ARKANSAS
AK Little Rock 250000 TX TEXAS
AK Little Rock 250000 NY NEW YORK
AK Little Rock 250000 NJ NEW JERSY
AK Hot Springs 8000 AK ARKANSAS
AK Hot Springs 8000 TX TEXAS
AK Hot Springs 8000 NY NEY YORK
AK Hot Springs 8000 NJ NEW JERSY
TX Dallas 1000000 AK ARKANSAS
TX Dallas 1000000 TX TEXAS
TX Dallas 1000000 NY NEW YORK
TX Dallas 1000000 NJ NEW JERSY
TX Irving 100000 AK ARKANSAS
TX Irving 100000 TX TEXAS
TX Irving 100000 NY NEW YOURK
TX Irving 100000 NJ NEW JERSY
TX Austin 1500000 AK ARKANSAS
TX Austin 1500000 TX TEXAS
TX Austin 1500000 TY NEW YORK
TX Austin 1500000 NJ NEW JERSY
NY New York 30000000 AK ARKANSAS
NY New York 30000000 TX TEXAS
NY New York 30000000 NY NEW YORK
NY New York 30000000 NJ NEW JERSY
NJ New Jersy 1500000 AK ARKANSAS
NJ New Jersy 1500000 TX TEXAS
NJ New Jersy 1500000 NY NEW YORK
NJ New Jersy 1500000 NJ NEW JERSY
NJ Paris 10000 AK ARKANSAS
NJ Paris 10000 TX TEXAS
NJ Paris 10000 NY NEW YORK
NJ Paris 10000 NJ NEW JERSY

Now the WHERE clause applies on the above shown temporary table. According to the WHERE
clause in our select statement state_cd in city table should be equal to state_cd in state table ie
(CITY.STATE_CD = STATE.STATE_CD). To show the result set we have to select those
records in which state_cd is equal. So in the following table all the records we marked in black is
selected and those one marked in reds are discarded as the state_cd is different. This is the way it
will filter the un wanted records when you do a join.

CITY.STATE_ CITY.CITY_NA CITY.POPULAT STATE.STATE STATE.STATE_D

CD ME ION _CD ESC
AK Little Rock 250000 AK ARKANSAS
AK Little Rock 250000 TX TEXAS
AK Little Rock 250000 NY NEW YORK
AK Little Rock 250000 NJ NEW JERSY
AK Hot Springs 8000 AK ARKANSAS
AK Hot Springs 8000 TX TEXAS
AK Hot Springs 8000 NY NEY YORK
AK Hot Springs 8000 NJ NEW JERSY
TX Dallas 1000000 AK ARKANSAS
TX Dallas 1000000 TX TEXAS
TX Dallas 1000000 NY NEW YORK
TX Dallas 1000000 NJ NEW JERSY
TX Irving 100000 AK ARKANSAS
TX Irving 100000 TX TEXAS
TX Irving 100000 NY NEW YOURK
TX Irving 100000 NJ NEW JERSY
TX Austin 1500000 AK ARKANSAS
TX Austin 1500000 TX TEXAS
TX Austin 1500000 NY NEW YORK
TX Austin 1500000 NJ NEW JERSY
NY New York 30000000 AK ARKANSAS
NY New York 30000000 TX TEXAS
NY New York 30000000 NY NEW YORK
NY New York 30000000 NJ NEW JERSY
NJ New Jersy 1500000 AK ARKANSAS
NJ New Jersy 1500000 TX TEXAS
NJ New Jersy 1500000 NY NEW YORK
NJ New Jersy 1500000 NJ NEW JERSY
NJ Paris 10000 AK ARKANSAS
NJ Paris 10000 TX TEXAS
NJ Paris 10000 NY NEW YORK
NJ Paris 10000 NJ NEW JERSY
So after filtered the un wanted records the work table looks like

CITY.STATE_ CITY.CITY_NA CITY.POPULAT STATE.STATE STATE.STATE_D

CD ME ION _CD ESC
AK Little Rock 250000 AK ARKANSAS
AK Hot Springs 8000 AK ARKANSAS
TX Dallas 1000000 TX TEXAS
TX Irving 100000 TX TEXAS
TX Austin 1500000 TX TEXAS
NY New York 30000000 NY NEW YORK
NJ New Jersy 1500000 NJ NEW JERSY
NJ Paris 10000 NJ NEW JERSY

What are the columns we have in our SELECT statement those are the only columns that will be
in our result set, all other columns will get discarded at this final time.

CITY_NM POPULATION STATE_DESC

Little Rock 250000 ARKANSAS
Hot Springs 8000 ARKANSAS
Dallas 1000000 TEXAS
Irving 100000 TEXAS
Austin 1500000 TEXAS
New York 30000000 NEW YORK
New Jersy 1500000 NEW JERSY
Paris 10000 NEW JERSY

That is how the result set will get processed inside the database engine.

Querying Multiples Tables

Joins are used to combine columns from different tables. With joins, the information from any
number of tables can be related. In a join, the tables are listed in the FROM clause, separeated by
commas.The condition of the query can refer to any column of any table joined. The connection
between tables is established through the WHERE clause. Based on the condition specified in
WHERE clause, the required rows are retrived.

Following are the different types of joins

Equi Joins, Cartesian Joins, Outer Joins, Self Joins

Equi Joins
When two tables are joined together using equality of values in one or more columns, they make
and equi join. Table prefixes are utilized to prevent ambiguity and the WHERE clause specifies
the columns being joined.

Example
List the employee number, employee name, department number and department name.

See the information we want in this example. We can get Employee number, Employee name,
Department information from employee table but department name exists in department table, so
to get all the information in one Select we should join two tables and join with a common
column between two tables(where clause), here deptno column is the common column between
emp and dept tables.

Select empno, ename, emp.deptno, dname

From emp, dept
Where emp.deptno = dept.deptno

Cartesian Joins

If you are selecting information from more than on table and if you did not specify the where
clause, each row of one table matches every row of the other table ie Cartesian Join.

If you have a table TAB1 which has 25 rows, TAB2 which has 10 rows then, if you join these
two tables with out where cluase then you get 25 * 10 ( 250 ) rows as the result set.

Cartesian products is useful in finding out all the possible combination of columns from different
tables.

Outer Joins

If there are any values in one table that do not have corresponding values in the other, in an
equijoin that row will not be selected. Such rows can be forcefully selected by using the outer
join symbol (+). The corresponding columns for that row will have NULLs.

Where you will use the Outer Join. For example we have employee and department tables. In
department table deptno is the primary key, in employee table deptno exists and its a foreign key.
By rule you cannot have a deptno in employee table if it does not exists in dept table, ie the
primary and foreign key concept. So we can have a department record and there is no employee
in the related department.

In the emp table, no record of the employees belonging to the department 40 is present.
Therefore, in the example above for equi join, the row of department 40 from the dept table will
not be displayed

Display the list of employees working in each department. Display department information even
if no employee exists in that department.
Select empno, ename, dept.deptno, dname, loc
from emp, dept
where emp.deptno( + ) = dept.deptno

The outer join symbol (+) can not be used both the sides

Self Join

To join a table to itself means that each row of the tables is combined with itself and every other
row of the table. The self join can be viewed as a join of two copies of same table. The table is
not actually copied, but SQL performs the command as though it were.

Select a.ename, b.name

from emp a, emp b
where a.mgr = b.empno

Built-in Database Functions

Character Functions

LOWER ( char variable) - Used to show the string in lower case

UPPER (char variable) - Used to show the string in Upper case
LTRIM (char variable) - Remove the spaces " " in left side of the string
RTRIM (char variable) - Remove the spaces " " in right side of the string
SUBSTR(char variable, m) - Gets you the part of a string
LENGTH(char variable) - Gives the length of the string
INSTR(string variable, char) - Gives the position of the char you are searching for
LPAD
RPAD
INITCAP(char variable) - Every first letter in the passed string becomes upper case

Examples for Character Functions

Select lower('EXAMPLE FOR LOWERCASE') from dual;

Select upper('example for upper case') from dual;

Select ltrim(' left trim example') from dual;

Select rtrim ('right trim example ') from dual;

Select Substr('you are correct', 1,7) from dual;

Select length('you are correct') from dual;

Select instr('you are correct', 'correct') from dual;

Select initcap('you are correct') from dual;

Arithmetic Functions

ABS (numeric)
CEIL (numeric)
FLOOR (numeric)
MOD
POWER
SIGN
SQRT
TRUNC
ROUND

Examples for Arithmetic Functions

Select ABS(-9) from dual;

Select MOD(5,2) from dual;

Date Functions

Sysdate - Gives the current date.

Add_months ( date variable, number of months to be added to that date )
Months_between ( date variable d1, date variable d2)
To_date( char variable, date variable)
Last_Day( date variable )
Next_Day (date variable, day )
To_Char( date variable, to what format you want )

Examples for Date Functions

SELECT sysdate FROM dual;

SELECT to_date('1997 09 24', 'yyyy mm dd') FROM dual;

SELECT months_between( sysdate, to_date('10-24-1994','MM-DD-YYYY') FROM dual;

SELECT add_months( sysdate, 4) FROM dual;

SELECT last_day( sysdate ) FROM dual;

SELECT next_day( sysdate,'monday') FROM dual;

SELECT to_char(sysdate,'day-month-yyyy') FROM dual;

Group Functions

Group By is used mostly with functions in which the functions produces value for each group.

Avg
Sum
Count
Max
Min

Views

Views are logical tables derived from columns of one or more base tables. Data does not actually
exist in a view. Data is dynamically derived from the base tables when the view is referenced. A
view can extract any subset of rows and columns from one or more underlying tables.

View is a virtual table:- a table that does not exist in its own right but looks to the user as if it
did. By contrast, a base table is a real table ,in the sense that for each row of such a table,there
really is some stored counterpart of that row in physical storage.

SYNTAX

CREATE VIEW viewname [(column name,....)] AS subquery

eg: Create view view1 (author_id,last_name,first_name) as select au_id, au_lname, au_fname

from authors

The effect of this statement is to create a new view called view1 with three columns-
author_id,last_name,first_name corresponding to au_id,au_fname,au_lname from authors table.If
column names are not specified explicitly in the CREATE VIEW, then the view inherits the
column names from the source tables of the view.Column names must be explicitly specified for
all columns of the view if

1.any column of the view is derived from a function,an operational expression or a constant, and
has no name that can be inherited (or)

2.Two or more columns of the view would otherwise have the same name.

Eg: 1.Create view totsales(title_id,totqty) as select title_id,sum(qty) from titles group by title_id.
2.Create view view2 as select title_id,qty from sales where qty > 100.

Retrieval Operations:

Using SELECT statement, Contents of the view can be viewed.

Eg:1.Select * from view2

2.Select totqty,title_id from totsales

Modification of views

You can add a record to the view by inserting a record in the base table. For example, you can
insert a record into view2 by adding a record to the table Sales. Take another example.

Create a table table1 with two fields col1 and col2.col1 allows not null and col2 allows null.
Create a view view4which will have only col1.Insert a record into view4.Use select statement to
display the contents of table1 and view4.

You will find out that table1 will have a new record with a null value of col2.View4 will also
include this new record. If you are inserting a new record into the view columns other than those
in the table should allow for null values. If they do not allow for null values, then inserting a
record to the view is not possible.

If you want to delete a record from the view, you can do so by deleting it from the base table.
Similarly, updation of view is possible only through base tables.

Synonyms

Synonyms is nothing but another name for a table in the current database or in other database. Its
easier

Per example If user DAVID created a table called ACT_MASTER. If user JON wants to select
the values from ACT_MASTER which was created by DAVID then DAVID should grant the
permissions to JON. Even after DAVID gives a SELECT permission on the ACT_MASTER to
JON, JON cal write the SELECT like
SELECT * FROM DAVID.ACT_MASTER

Imaging once this application is used by 500 users then DAVID cannot give all the permissions
to each and every one so ORACLE has an object called Synonyms. The use of synonym being
we can use just table name instead of username.tablename like DAVID.ACT_MASTER.

Syntax

CREATE synonym <name> FOR <dblink.user.tablename>

CREATE PUBLIC synonym <name> FOR <dblink.user.tablename>

Synonym Example

CREATE SYNONYM ACT_MASTER FOR DAVID.ACT_MASTER

GRANT SELECT ON ACT_MASTER TO JON

Public Synonym

CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM ACT_MASTER FOR DAVID.ACT_MASTER

GRANT SELECT ON ACT_MASTER TO PUBLIC

Once you create a Public Synonym we use that in the application programs. In the Application
its better to use the synonyms instead of user_name.table_name.

Sequences

Sequence is an object which generates the sequence numbers, first time when you get a value
you get 1, next time you get 2, next you get 3..............

Where exactly we use Seq numbers,

In the IT industry we can use sequential numbers in many places, for example
customer table's primary key is Customer number. We cannot have duplicates on Primary key.
So when ever you insert a new row into the customer table we read maximum customer number
from the customer table then add 1 to it so that we get next number, using the added
number insert a row into the customer table. This way you can get the sequence numbers.

Customer Table

In Single User Environment

Lets assume the maximum value in the Customer table is 250.
MARK reads maximum value he gets 250.
Add 1 to the maximum value (250 + 1)
maximum value now is 251
insert a new row into customer so that new customer number is 251.

Every thing is fine, we are good to go.

If the system is a Multi User system then more than one user can do the same process
at the same time. Read the following scenario, User1 and User2 were adding new customers.

Lets assume maximum value in Customer table is 300

At 10.00 A.M
User 1 is inserting a new customer
User 1 reads maximum value (300)
User 1 adds 1 to the maximum (300 + 1)
maximum value is now 301
User 1 gets information from customer thriugh phone
User 1 inserts row at 10.02 A.M (Success insert)

At 10.01 A.M
User 2 is inserting a new customer
User 2 reads maximum value (300)
User 2 adds 1 to the maximum (300 + 1)
maximum value is now 301
User 2 gets information from customer thriugh phone
User 2 inserts row at 10.03 A.M (fails because of Primary Key violation)

As both users has 301 as the value which they are going to insert into the table, the
first one who goes to the server inserts fine the second one will get failed as we are
trying to violate the Primary Key concept.
In order to make it work we should make sure that we wont send any duplicate values
for the primary key column.
Sequence provides such a feature, every time user asks the next value it gives the right
one.

CREATE SEQUENCE CUSTOMER_SEQ

START WITH 100
INCREMENT BY 1
NOCYCLE
CACHE 50

Select CUSTOMER_SEQ.NEXTVAL from DUAL;

to drop a Sequence
DROP SEQUENCE CUSTOMER_SEQ

ALTER SEQUECE CUSTOMER_SEQ

RECYCLE
CACHE 100

Whats this CACHE parameter does is it generates and keeps the next so many
numbers in the SGA (System Global Area) so that it dispatches the number to the user
fast.

A sequence is created through the CREATE SEQUENCE command,

CREATE SEQUENCE <seq_name> [INCREMENT BY<n>] START WITH <m>]

  <seq_name> is the name of the sequence.
 <n> is the increment specified by the user.
 The default for INCREMENT BY is 1;the user can specify the increments
 START WITH is the number with which the sequence will begin

1. <seq_name> CURRVAL :Returns the current value of sequence.

2. <seq_name> NEXTVAL :Returns the next value of the sequence.Also increments the
value.

Examples:

Create sequence empnumber increment by 1 start with 1190

This command creates a sequence 'empnumber' that can be accessed by insert and update.

Insert into emp(empno,ename,sal) values(empnumber.NEXTVAL,'Hans',6000)

This will insert 1191 into the column empno,as the sequence starts with 1190.After this, the
CURRVA will contain 1191.

Multi-Table Inserts:

The INSERT ALL statement in Oracle 9i can be used to insert one or more
tables with one statement fired. This is explained in the following examples.

Example 1:

INSERT ALL
INTO dept
VALUES (50,`Operations ´,`Bangalore ´)
INTO emp (empno, ename, sal,comm, deptno)
VALUES (1009, ’Sam’, 12000, NULL, 50)
SELECT * FROM dual;

Here, the tables dept and emp are inserted with a row each. For this
statement to perform insert, the select statement which is a part of the
insert all is mandatory because an insert is performed for each row sel
ected. In this example, as we’re selecting from DUAL, both the inserts (into
emp and dept) are performed only once.

Example 2:

INSERT ALL
WHEN MOD (deptno, 100) = 0 THEN
INTO dept_log
VALUES (deptno, dname, loc)
WHEN MOD (deptno, 10) = 0 THEN
INTO dept_new
VALUES (deptno, dname, loc)
WHEN MOD (deptno, 10) <> 0 THEN
 INTO dept_history
VALUES (deptno, dname, loc)
SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept;

Here, the rows are inserted based on the condition specified in the
WHEN clause. However, all the conditions here are checked. Inserts are
performed for all the WHEN conditions satisfied. If, for a particular row
returned by the select, more than one when conditions are satisfied, then the
corresponding inserts are performed. So for the value 100 for deptno a row is
inserted into dept_log as well as dept_new.

Example 3:

INSERT FIRST
WHEN MOD (deptno, 100) = 0 THEN
INTO dept_log
VALUES (deptno, dname, loc)
WHEN MOD (deptno, 10) = 0 THEN
INTO dept_new
VALUES (deptno, dname, loc)
WHEN MOD (deptno, 10) <> 0 THEN
INTO dept_history
VALUES (deptno, dname, loc)
SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept;

Here, INSERT FIRST is used instead of INSTEAD ALL, which, unlike

INSTEAD ALL, executes the INTO part only for the first WHEN condition that is
TRUE for every row returned by the select.

Example 4:

INSERT ALL
WHEN MOD (deptno, 10) = 0 THEN
INTO dept_new
VALUES (deptno, dname, loc)
ELSE
INTO dept_hist
VALUES (seq.NEXTVAL, dname, loc)
SELECT deptno, dname, loc FROM dept;

As shown above, ELSE can be used in INSERT ALL and in INSERT FIRST too.
The ELSE part is executed when no when clauses are satisfied. A sequence may
also be used as shown to avoid unique key violations in some cases.
Materialized views

A materialized view is a database object that contains the results of a query.

A materialized view can query tables, views, and other materialized views.
They are also known as snapshots.

Syntax:
Create materialized view < materialized view name >
[build [deferred|immediate]
[refresh [fast|complete|force]
[on demand | commit]
[start with date] [next date]
[with {primary key|rowid}]]
As <select statement>;
[ ] - Optional

Methods:

Oracle provides 2 methods to build the materialized views.

 Immediate
 Deferred

Immediate:
Create the materialized view and then populate it with data.

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
build immediate
as select * from emp;

Deferred:
Create the materialized view definition but do not populate it with data .

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
build deferred
as select * from emp;

Types:

Oracle provides 3 methods to refresh the materialized views.

 Complete
 Fast
 Force

Complete:
When complete refresh occurs in the materialized view, it is first truncated and
all the data are reloaded.
Complete refresh is a good technique to use when

 The number of new rows to be inserted is more than 50% of the cardinality of the
tables on which the materialized view is based.

 The time required to perform a fast refresh is longer than a complete refresh.

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
refresh complete
as select * from emp;

Fast:
The new data loaded into any table in the warehouse is identified and
 any materialized view referencing that table is automatically updated with the new
data.
To identify the new data loaded into the master tables, you need to create the
materialized
view log on the master tables.
Before creating the materialized views the log should be created first.
Syntax:
Create materialized view log on <table_name>;
Create materialized view log on emp;
The log should be created based up on the master table.

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
refresh fast
as select * from emp;

Force:
When force refresh occurs in the materialized view, will do a fast refresh
if it possible (only when the data is changed) otherwise performs a complete refresh.
Force refresh is the default.

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
refresh force
as select * from emp;

Operations:

There are two operations available to refresh the materialized view.

 Commit
 Demand

Commit:
The materialized view will be automatically refreshed or updated or reflected
the data once the commit is done.

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
refresh fast on commit
as select * from emp;

Demand:
The materialized view will be refreshed manually by calling
the following procedures which is listed below.

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
refresh fast on demand
as select * from emp;
DBMS_MVIEW.REFRESH: For specific materialized views.

DBMS_MVIEW.REFRESH_DEPENDENT: For those materialized view dependent on a

table.

DBMS_MVIEW.REFRESH_ALL_MVIEWS: For all materialized views

Timing the Refresh:

The start clause informs the database when to refresh the materialized view.
The next clause specifies the interval when to refresh the materialized view again.

Eg:
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
refresh fast
start with sysdate
next sysdate + 2
as select * from emp;

In the above example materialized view will get refreshed once in two days.
If it gets refreshed on today then the next refresh will occur after 2 days.

With Primary Key/Rowid:

Materialized view cannot be created until and unless the table contains the primary
key.
If you need to create the materialized view on the tables which contains no primary
key
you need to specify the keyword with rowid in the create statement. Primary key is
the default.

Eg:

With Primary key [optional]

Create materialized view emp_mat_view
with primary key
as select * from emp;
OR
Create materialized view emp_mat_view
as select * from emp;
With Rowid
Create materialized view emp_mat_view refresh
with rowid
as select * from emp;

Benefits of Materialized views

 Less physical reads

 Decrease the CPU consumption
 Faster response time
 Indexes can be created
Eg:
Create index mat_view_index
on emp_mat_view (empno);