Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Performance evaluation of concrete incorporating glass powder and

glass sludge wastes as supplementary cementing material
Hyeongi Lee a, Asad Hanif b, c, *, Muhammad Usman d, Jongsung Sim e, Hongseob Oh a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Gyeongnam National University of Science and Technology, 33 Dongjin-ro, Jinju-si, Gyeonsangnam-do, 52725, Republic
of Korea
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region, China
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Mirpur University of Science and Technology, Allama Iqbal Road, Mirpur (AJ&K), 10250, Pakistan
d
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Science and Technology, Sector H-12, Islamabad, Pakistan
e
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University, 55 Daehak-ro, Sungnok-gu, Ansan, Gyeonggi-do, 15588, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purport of this study is to efficiently recycle waste glass, one of silica-based industrial by-products,
Received 17 April 2017 and use it as a cement substitute for sustainable construction. Waste glass powder (WGP) and waste
Received in revised form glass sludge (WGS) were manufactured from the waste glass and their feasibility, for use in concrete as
10 August 2017
partial replacement of cement, was evaluated. 20% of cement (by weight) was replaced with WGP and
Accepted 3 September 2017
Available online 14 September 2017
WGS and the resulting concretes were tested for mechanical properties and durability. Porosity and
phase identification studies were also carried out. After 90-day age, the WGS incorporated concrete
exhibited the highest compressive strength. Also, it was found that WGS incorporation in concrete led to
Keywords:
Waste glass
reduced porosity due to their greater pozzolanic activity owing to the inherent amorphous nature of
Glass powder WGS. Investigations on frost resistance and chloride ions penetrability further showed that these glass
Glass sludge wastes are better in improving these properties. After 50 cycles of freezing e thawing, the concretes
Concrete incorporated with WGP and WGS showed lower mass loss as compared to normal concrete, by 24% and
Mechanical properties 36% respectively. Also, WGS incorporation resulted in 24% reduction in chloride ion diffusion coefficient.
Durability Summarily, the results indicate that WGS is superior in enhancing mechanical, microstructural, and
durability e related properties of concrete and as such its use in concrete shall help sustainable devel-
opment due to efficient waste utilization, reduced associated carbon dioxide emissions, and lower
production costs.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction industry, but it is also considered to be an absolutely essential

With the recent upsurge in environmental concerns, “Sustain-
ability” has emerged as a prominent issue (Hanif, 2017). According
to the World Commission on Environment and Development of the
United Nations, sustainability means “Meeting the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of the future generations
to meet their own needs” (Brundtland, 1987). Concrete has not only
been critical in achieving many advancements in the construction
* Corresponding author. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region, China.
E-mail addresses: ahanif@connect.ust.hk, asadhanif@must.edu.pk,
asadhanif193@gmail.com (A. Hanif).
construction material of the future, and due to its relatively high
durability and economic feasibility it is widely used in construction
industry around the world (Hanif et al., 2017b). Cement, which is
the main constituent of concrete, releases high amounts of global
warming greenhouse gases during its production. It is reported that
an estimated 870 kg of CO2 is released during the production of 1
ton of Portland cement and the production of cement is responsible
for a significant 5% of the total 30 gigatons of CO2 emitted world-
wide (Naik and Moriconi, 2005). The process of producing cement
involves the various steps of fuel consumption, calcination, elec-
tricity etc. and this industry is considered high CO2 emissions
industry.
There has been active research on alternative materials for
cement. Products such as fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.133
0959-6526/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
684 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693
slag, silica fume and rice husk etc., which are industrial by-
products, have mainly been used. Incorporating these industrial
by-products to partially substitute the use of cement in concrete
has become widespread (Collepardi et al., 2004; Hanif et al., 2017e;
Kwan and Chen, 2013; Li and Ding, 2002; Rodríguez De Sensale,
2006). While using such industrial by-product as replacements
for cement, not only there is a reduction in associated CO2 emis-
sions, but also there are effects of lowering the impact on the
environment related to landfills and waste. The recycling of in-
dustrial by-products further precludes exploitation of natural re-
sources, and by reducing the consumption of finite resources, there
are not only environmentally friendly benefits, but through cost
savings there are also economic benefits (Hanif et al., 2017a; Kumar
et al., 2014; Raju and Kumar, 2014). In the case of the domestic
industrial by-product waste glass, there is a currently annual supply
of 700,000e800,000 tons, of which 70% is being recycled. But the
reality is that with exception to waste glass bottles, glass is not
being recycled. Also 300,000 tons of waste glass sludge, a by-
product of manufacturing plate glass, is produced annually, and
this entire amount is currently being dumped in landfills or being
discarded (Rashad, 2014).
1.1. State e of e the e art
Waste glass is an ingredient with a composite profile of about
70% SiO2, and possesses pozzolanic activity which is already
confirmed in the hydration reaction with cement (Khmiri et al.,
2013). This makes it potentially efficient in the long-term perfor-
mance enhancement of concrete. While using waste glass as fine
Fig. 1. Manufacturing process of (a) Waste glass powder, and (b) Waste glass sludge.
particles, it has been reported to lower the permeability of concrete
and therefore enhancing durability through increase in the
pozzolanic activity and the pore micro filling effect in the cement
matrix (Bignozzi et al., 2015; Gopalakrishnan, 2011; Shi et al.,
2005). The resulting performance improvement of concrete re-
duces end user costs and repair/maintenance cost by decreasing
the period/interval of maintenance. Thus, it is expected to signifi-
cantly contribute to the social aspect of using concrete as well (Jani
and Hogland, 2014; Khmiri et al., 2012a, b).
Waste glass finds its applications in concrete in a variety of ways.
It can be used as inert filler aggregate (when used in larger sized
particles) or supplementary cementing material (SCM) (when finer
particle gradation is used) by replacing some weight fraction of
cement with it. It has been demonstrated earlier that the me-
chanical properties are drastically reduced due to incorporation of
recycled waste glass products. Afshinnia and Rangaraju (2016)
studied the use of different sizes and volume fractions of glass as
aggregate in concrete. They found that the resulting mechanical
properties were greatly reduced. Castro and Brito (2011) studied
the use of crushed glass as aggregate and evaluated the durability
characteristics; it was shown that the particle size is the key gov-
erning factor in controlling various concrete properties. Such
findings were corroborated by other researchers as well e.g.
(Corinaldesi et al., 2005; Limbachiya et al., 2012; Nassar and
Soroushian, 2012, 2012; Park et al., 2004; Topçu and Canbaz,
2004). Due to such reduction in performance of concrete incorpo-
rating recycled waste glass products as aggregate, its use was not
encouraged.
However, when the incorporation was done by replacing
 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693
Table 1
Physical and chemical properties of Cement, WGP, and WGS.
Classification Chemical composition (%)
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3
Cement 20.1 4.6 3.8
Waste Glass Powder 66.8 10.1 0.6
Waste Glass Sludge 68.2 10.1 0.2
cement while using finer granulometry, improved mechanical
properties could be achieved (Federico, 2013; Matos and Sousa-
Coutinho, 2012). Waste glass powder has been of great interest
for such utilization, due to easier manufacturing owing to relatively
larger gradation (Aliabdo et al., 2016; Saribiyik et al., 2013). Me-
chanical and durability properties thus determined signified its
beneficial use.
1.2. Research significance
Although, various research findings are available on concretes
and mortars incorporating waste glass powder as SCM, studies on
waste glass sludge (which is a more fine graded form of powder)
are sparse. Finer particle size is anticipated for further mechanical
enhancement of the cementitious composites (concrete), and
hence glass sludge waste is deemed a viable option. The novelty
and research contribution of the present study is the performance
evaluation of concrete incorporating WGS as SCM by determining
various properties, including mechanical strength, chloride ion
permeability, freeze thaw resistance, porosity and corresponding
correlations, and comparing these against the corresponding
properties of WGP incorporated concrete. As there are no published
findings on such properties of WGS containing concrete, hence,
there is a necessity to fill these research gaps. The objective of this
research is to replace (partially) cement with WGP and WGS. To
confirm the viability of such replacement, the mechanical proper-
ties and durability of developed concretes were examined. Based
on the test results, conclusions on the role, compatibility and
applicability of waste glass in concrete were deduced.
Fig. 2. Particle size distribution of binders.
685
Average particle size (mm) Specific gravity (g/cm3)
CaO Na2O K2O
64.2 0.1 1.0 24.6 3.2
10.8 8.4 0.9 22.8 2.6
9.9 7.6 0.2 14.7 2.6
2. Materials and experimental methods
2.1. Materials
Cement, waste glass powder (WGP) and waste glass sludge
(WGS), were used as binders. The cement used in this research is
ordinary Portland cement (ASTM Type 1). The quality evaluation of
cement confirmed according to KS L 5201 “Portland cement” and
ASTM C 74 “Specification for Portland cement” standards. WGP
used in this research has about a 3% ceramic content. To adjust the
particle size distribution of waste glass, after crushing with Roller
M/C, it was ground using a Ball mill and a Jet mill. The processing of
waste glass powder is shown in Fig. 1. WGS used in this study was
produced as a by-product of plate glass or in glass processing plant,
and during grinding process of glass, residues thus produced go
through cohesion and dehydration to form lumps. To use this state
as a cement substitute ingredient, after a re-drying process, it was
crushed using a Jet mill to adjust the particle size. As a result, the
waste glass satisfied the standard content of having more than 70%
of the major acidic oxide (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3) for ASTM C618. As
shown in Fig. 3, crystal structure of waste glass powder was shown
to have typical XRD pattern of an amorphous material. The chem-
ical composition of WGS was found somewhat similar to that of
WGP, and is shown in Table 1. The elemental analysis of the binders
was done to quantify the chemical compositions. For this purpose,
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry was carried out (XRF). After
adjusting the particle size in sludge form, particle size distribution
is shown in Fig. 2; average particle size was measured as 14.7 mm.
WGS was also confirmed to have a typical XRD pattern of an
amorphous material as shown in Fig. 3.
The coarse aggregate and fine aggregate used in this research
conformed to KS F 2526 “Concrete aggregate” and ASTM C 33
“Standard specification for concrete aggregate” standards and
quality. The physical properties of the coarse and fine aggregates,
used in this study, are shown in Table 2 and the corresponding
Fig. 3. XRD patterns of Cement, WGP, and WGS.
686 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693

gradation curves are given in Fig. 4.

2.2. Mixture proportioning and sample preparation

The concrete mixture proportioning is given in Table 3.

The design compressive strength and initial slump were set as
38.5 MPa and 140e160 mm. The water-cement ratio (w/c) of 0.35
(by weight) was used in all concrete mixtures. The mix formulation
was based on the ACI mix design method (ACI Committee 211,
2002; Kosmatka et al., 2008). The concrete was mixed in a
rotating drum type mixer. First, all the required coarse aggregate
was put in the mixer along with 50% of the binder (cement plus
WGP or WGS). These were mixed for one minute while progres-
sively adding 50% of the required water. After one minute, the fine
aggregate, remaining water, admixtures and binder were added
while the mixer continued to rotate for three more minutes. The
whole mixing procedure took around four minutes. Then, the
specimen were cast in molds of various sizes. Cylindrical specimen
with diameter 100 mm and length 200 mm were cast for
compressive strength testing (ASTM C39, 2003) and chloride ion
penetrability measurement (ASTM International, 1997a), whereas
for determining frost resistance (ASTM International, 1997b), pris-
matic specimens of size 100 mm
100 mm x 400 mm were cast.
After casting, the samples were cured in moist room at
22  C ± 2.5  C and 95% relative humidity.

2.3. Testing procedures

2.3.1. Fresh concrete testing

The properties of the fresh concrete mix were determined by
the slump (mm) and air content (%), in compliance with (ASTM
C143-03, 2003) and (ASTM C185-99, 1999; ASTM C231-04, 2004).

2.3.2. Testing for mechanical and microstructural properties

Compressive strength: Compressive strength testing was car-
ried out on the cylindrical specimens according to ASTM C39 (ASTM
C39, 2003; Hanif et al., 2017a, 2017b). Loading rate was set to
2.4 kN/s.
XRD: At ages 28days, after crushing the paste cubes, they were
ground manually and sieved through 150-mm sieve for XRD anal-
ysis. For this, XRD machine, using Cu Ka radiation
(Wavelength ¼ 1.54059 Å) was used. The scan step size was 0.02 ,
the collection time 1 s, and the range 2Q Cu Ka from 5 to 70 . The Fig. 4. Particle size distribution of (a) coarse aggregate, and (b) fine aggregate used in
the study.
X-ray tube voltage and current were fixed at 40 kV and 30 mA,
respectively.
Porosity: Porosity and pore volume characteristics in the com- angle was taken as 140 (Ma, 2014). Washburn equation
posites were evaluated by mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) (Washburn, 1921) was used to convert the pressure in to relevant
method (Hanif et al., 2017c, 2017d; Ma, 2013). For this test, the pore diameter while Katz-Thompson model (Katz and Thompson,
samples were prepared by breaking down to smaller sizes and 1986) was employed to determine the permeability. The Wash-
dried by solvent replacement method (Hanif et al., 2017c, 2017e). burn equation and Katz e Thompson models are represented by
The dried samples were subjected to mercury intrusion during Equations (1) and (2), respectively.
which the pressure was increased up to 400 MPa (initially low
pressure followed by high pressure). The mercury-concrete contact 4g cos q
P¼ (1)
d
Table 2
where ‘g’ is the surface tension of mercury and ‘q’ is the contact
Properties of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate used in the study.
angle between the mercury and the pore surface of solid.
Description Fine Coarse
Aggregate Aggregate s
2
k¼c dc (2)
Saturated-Surface-Dry (SSD) state specific 2.53 2.68 s0
gravity
Oven-Dry (OD) state specific gravity 2.49 2.66 where ‘dc’ is the critical pore diameter from MIP, ‘c’ is an analytical
Wet state specific gravity 2.6 2.71 constant based on cylindrical pore geometry assumption and
Water absorption ratio (%) 1.7 0.74 equals to 1/226, (s/s0) is the inverse formation factor denoting the
Fineness modulus (%) 2.88 7.29
connectivity and can be predicted from MIP for rocks (Katz and
 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693 687

Table 3
Mixture proportions of concrete specimens.

Description Water to Binder Ratio Water Quantities (kg/m3)

Binder Aggregates

Cement WGP WGS Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate

OPC (CM) 0.35 170 492.8 0 0 715 915

WGP20 0.35 170 394.2 98.6 0 710 905
WGS20 0.35 170 394.2 0 98.6 705 900

Thompson, 1986; Ma, 2013).

2.3.3. Durability e related properties

Frost resistance testing: Frost resistance was evaluated by two
methods; rapid freezing and thawing resistance and scaling resis-
tance of concrete surfaces exposed to deicing chemicals. Rapid
freezing and thawing resistance test for the concrete specimens
were conducted according to KS F 2456 “Standard test method for
resistance of concrete to rapid freezing and thawing” and ASTM C
666 “Standard test method for resistance of concrete to rapid
freezing and thawing”. The experiment was conducted after the
specimens had been cured for 14 days in moist room at a temper-
ature of 22 ± 2.5  C. The test procedure for one cycle is illustrated in
Fig. 5. In this test, 300 cycles of freezing-thawing were performed.
In a single cycle, the core temperature was dropped from 4  C
to 18  C, then restored from 18  C to 4  C. The freeze-thaw
damage was evaluated by measuring the fundamental transverse
frequency of concrete prisms every 30 cycles of freeze-thaw
exposure. The fundamental transverse frequency of simply sup-
ported concrete prisms was performed according to (ASTM
International, 1997b). The relative dynamic modulus of elasticity
was calculated based on the fundamental transverse frequency
measured using Equation (3).
 
nn2
Pn ¼ x 100 (3)
no2

where, ‘Pn’ is the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity, after ‘n’

cycles of freezing and thawing (%), ‘nn’ is the fundamental trans-
verse frequency after ‘n’ cycle of freeze-thaw exposure and ‘n0’ is
the initial fundamental transverse frequency at 0 freeze-thaw
cycles.
The tests were progressed, until the relative dynamic modulus
of elasticity reached 60% of its initial value, or 300 cycles of freezing
and thawing. And, the durability factor was calculated using
Equation (4).
 
N
DF ¼ Pn (4)
M

where, DF is the durability factor of the test specimen, ‘Pn’ is the

relative dynamic modulus of elasticity at ‘n’ cycles (%), ‘N’ is the
number of cycles at which ‘Pn’ reaches the specified minimum
value for discontinuing the test or the specified number of cycles at
which the exposure is to be terminated, whichever is less and ‘M’ is
the specified number of cycles at which the exposure is to be
terminated.
Scaling resistance test was conducted in accordance with (ASTM
International, 1998) in order to evaluate the effect of chloride and
freezing/thawing cycle on the scaling resistance of the concrete
surface. Procedure of casting specimen illustrated in Fig. 6. In order
to evaluate the effect on combined deterioration, the test solutions Fig. 5. Testing for resistance to freeze-thaw damage; (a) procedure freezing and
were treated as saline solution (CaCl2, 4%) specimens. And, the thawing for 1 cycle, (b) freezing and thawing test set-up, and (c) measurement of
freezing and thawing cycle was set in accordance with (ASTM fundamental transverse frequency.
688 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693

International, 1998), wherein thawing was done for 8 h in a

thermo-hygrostat maintained at temperature of 23 ± 2.0  C and
relative humidity of 45%e55% respectively. Freezing was done for
16 h at the temperature of 18 ± 3  C. Then, the surface scaling
resistance was checked every 5 cycles by measuring the weight
reduction (mass of scaled off particles) and reduction rate of the
test specimens at the 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, and 50 cycles.
The degree of scaling at the 25 cycle resulting from freezing and
thawing is specified in grade 0 to 5.
Chloride transport testing: Cylindrical specimens were dia-
metrically cut. The specimens were secured in the applied voltage
cell, and a circuit was constructed, as shown in Fig. 7. The power
supply of the circuit had to be able to supply electricity at the steady
state of 60 ± 0.1 V DC. The resistance of 0.1U was used. The exposed
part of the concrete specimen was covered with an impermeable
material so that it would not be affected by the chloride ion
penetration due to the drying of the concrete surface. The negative
electrode of the A.V. cell was filled with 3.0% NaCl solution, and the
positive electrode was filled with 0.3 N NaCl. The early temperature
of the solution was kept at the state of 20  C - 25  C. Also, the
temperature of the solution was kept under 90  C. Every 30 min, the
voltage of the 0.1U resistor was measured, and recorded by a data
logger connected to a computer. At this time, the device in which
the voltage could be measured by 0.1 mV and that had a degree of
precision of ±0.1%.
Chloride ion transport test demonstrated in (NT Build 492, 1999)
is used (Fig. 8). 50 mm thick slices were cut from the cylindrical
specimens at the age of 28 days. The slanting position was designed
to expel small gas bubbles that appear on the cathode plate during
testing. DC Power packs with constant voltage out-puts (variable in
the range of 0e60 V) were used. The solution level of anolyte
chamber (0.3 N NaOH solutions) and Catholyte chamber (10% NaCl
solution) are same. Cathode chamber (10% NaCl) was kept large to
prevent build-up of the OH- and depletion of Cl-. Final current and

Fig. 7. Rapid chloride ion penetration test set-up.

temperature in anolyte chamber were recorded before terminating

the test. Specimens from the test setup were removed and rinsed
with tap water. Then, these were split axially into two pieces and
inner surfaces were sprayed with 0.1 N AgNO3 solution. The depth
of chloride ions penetration was measured (Fig. 8). Once the white
silver chloride precipitation on the axial split surface is apparently
evident (nearly about 15 min), the chloride penetration depth has
been measured with the Vernier caliper, at an intervals of 10 mm.
The non-steady-state migration coefficient, Dnssm, was calcu-
lated from Equation (5) derived from the Fick's law.
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi !
0:0239ð273 þ TÞL ð273 þ TÞLx
Dnssm ¼ x  0:0238 (5)
ðU  2Þt U2

where, ‘Dnssm’ is the non-steady-state migration coefficient

(
1012 m2/s), ‘U’ is the absolute value of the applied voltage (V),
‘T’ is the average value of the initial and final temperature in the
anolyte solution ( C), ‘’L is the thickness of the specimen (mm), ‘x’ is
the average value of the penetration depth (mm) and ‘t’ is the test
duration (hour).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Slump and air content

Fig. 6. Scaling resistance test; (a) manufacturing process for scaling resistance test
specimen, and (b) scaling resistance test set-up. The results for the slump test of the fresh concrete are shown in
 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693 689

3.2. Mechanical and microstructural properties

3.2.1. Mechanical strength parameters

The results of compressive strength with aging are shown in
Fig. 10(a). All specimens reached the 28-day target strength of
38.5 MPa. At 7-day and 28-day age, the control concrete (OPC)
exhibited the highest strength, however at 90-day age WGS20
indicated higher strength than OPC and WGP20. The strength
development pattern indicates that WGS is superior to WGP in the
long term when used as partial replacement of cement. The higher
strength achieved for WGS indicates the enhanced the pozzolanic
reactivity leading to higher C-S-H formation.
(ASTM C618-01, 2001) suggests that the compressive strength
for natural pozzolans for use as supplementary cementing material
(SCM) in concrete can be expressed as strength activity index (SI). A
minimum SI of 75% is recommended by (ASTM C618-01, 2001) for a
pozzolan, if to be used as SCM. The SI values determined, based on
the strength of control mix (OPC), are shown in Fig. 10 (b). Both
WGP and WGS satisfied the minimum SI of 75% as standardized in
ASTM C 618. For WGP20, SI of about 90% was maintained at all ages.
The SI pattern with passing age shows that the reactivity of WGP in
concrete reaches its peak at 7-day age and is not affected signifi-
cantly with passing age. WGS20 specimens showed about SI of 90%,
95.8% and 100.6% at the ages of 7 days, 28 days, and 90 days,
respectively. The results clearly indicated that both WGP and WGS
satisfy the requirements of ACI C618 for use as cement replacement
in concrete while WGS offers better strength characteristics in the
long term with higher rate of strength gain. These results are in
conformance to those reported by Matos and Sousa-Coutinho
(2012) and Khmiri et al. (2012a, b); Khmiri et al. (2012a, b);
Khmiri et al. (2013).

3.2.2. Phase identification

The XRD patterns of various concretes are given in Fig. 11. Cal-
cium Silicate (Ca3SiO5), Portlandite (Ca(OH)2) and Larnite (Ca2SiO4)
were found as major phases for OPC and WGS20. In WGP20, Cal-
cium Silicate rather appeared in a different mineral phase i.e.
(Ca2SiO4), and also, a phase remaining Silicon Oxide (SiO2) was

Fig. 8. Chloride diffusion coefficient measurement; (a) schematic of chloride ion

migration set-up, (b) test set-up, and (c) measurement of the chloride penetration
depth.

Fig. 9. WGP20 showed the highest level of slump, which was

confirmed to be advantageous for improving the workability when
mixing waste glass powder. On the other hand, WGS20 satisfied the
range of the target slump but showed the lowest slump and
workability. The results of measuring the air contents showed that
OPC had the highest air content and concrete mixed with waste
glass sludge had the lowest air content. The results of the slump
and air content verify the workability of fresh concrete. As shown
by Topçu and Canbaz (2004), the slump and air content show a
decreasing trend with waste glass addition, which further corrob-
orates the findings of this study. It is also to be mentioned that a few
mm variation in slump should not be taken as a basis to ascertain
concrete workability as such change is usually within the statistical
variation. The slump and air content results are due to the higher
specific surface area and particle shape of the waste glass particles
used.
Fig. 9. Fresh concrete properties; (a) slump, and (b) air content.
690 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693
Fig. 10. Mechanical strength parameters; (a) compressive strength, and (b) Strength
activity index.
found. The Ca/Si ratio was found affected with WGS and WGP
incorporation. In OPC, the Ca/Si ratio is about 1.5e1.7, while lower
ratios (0.6e1.3) were detected when finer WGS particles were
mixed with cement. The pozzolanic activity is generally associated
with fine amorphous particles which react with Portlandite to form
C-S-H having a low Ca/Si ratio (<1.4) (Li, 2011; Mindess et al., 2003).
Thus, the strength gain due to addition of amorphous WGS particles
is attributed to the pozzolanic activity that resulted in lower Ca/Si
ratio. The finer granulometry of WGS (Fig. 1), also introduces the
Fig. 11. XRD patterns and corresponding peak identification for various concretes.
filler effect (Chen et al., 2006; Du and Tan, 2013) thus reducing the
porosity while increasing the solid phase. These conclusions are
further verified by porosity studies.
3.2.3. Porosity and pore size distribution
Porosity and pore size distribution results are shown in Fig. 12.
Both WGP and WGS found to have positive influence in reducing
the total porosity. WGS20 showed the best result where the peak of
median pore diameter was lower as well. The reduced porosity is
most probably due to the micro filler effect (Shi and Zheng, 2007).
3.3. Durability e related properties
3.3.1. Resistance to frost damage
The results of testing the resistance to frost damage when
subjected to freezing and thawing cycles is shown in Fig. 13. The
durability factor was estimated from the last 300 cycles for each
Mix ID. When waste glass powder and waste glass sludge are
mixed, the durability factors at the 300 cycles are 97.0 and 96.7,
respectively. The highest durability factor is presented when waste
glass powder is mixed. This is because freezing and thawing
resistance is determined by entrained air and strength of cement
matrix rather than the packing (filler) effect and contribution of
pozzolanic reaction.
The scaling resistance test evaluated the scaling mass loss. The
scaling resistance test evaluated for exposure to deicing and
 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693 691

chemicals on the concrete surfaces. As a result of scaling resistance

test, exposure of no coarse aggregate was found on the surface until
the 25 cycles as the freezing/thawing cycle progressed, and the
quantity of scaling mass was also 3.2 mm deep showing a superior
surface scaling resistance of the first to second grade. And the
weight reduction rate of surface exfoliation generated as the
freezing/thawing cycle progressed. The weight loss ratio is shown
in Fig. 13(b). The analysis of scaling mass loss showed that WGS20
had the most excellent scaling resistance after 50 cycles. WGP20
and WGS20 showed better scaling resistance than OPC by about
24% and 36%, respectively. The scaling resistance results showed
higher disparity, among various mix IDs, than the rapid freezing

Fig. 13. Results of frost resistance testing; (a) Durability factor, and (b) Scaling
resistance.

and thawing resistance test. Better scaling resistance for WGP and
WGS is attributed to the fine particle filling effect and pozzolanic
reaction. Polley et al. (1998) determined that waste glass resulted in
minor effects in concrete. However, in this study, with incorpora-
tion of WGS greater scaling resistance is achieved.

3.3.2. Chloride transport

The results of the chloride penetration test are shown in the
following Fig. 14. WGP20 showed a ‘Moderate’ level of chloride
Fig. 12. Pore size distributions in concrete specimens. penetrability according to the ASTM standard. WGS20 was
692 H. Lee et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 170 (2018) 683e693
Fig. 14. Results of chloride penetration depth and diffusion coefficient.
evaluated at ‘Very low grade’ at 626 coulombs. At 56 days of aging,
all specimens showed a ‘Negligible’ grade, which is mainly due to
the slower hydration rate after 56-day age. WGS20 exhibited the
best performance among all. This is attributed to not only the pore
filler effect caused by the fine particles of WGS, but also due to the
pozzolanic reaction, which is a long-term reaction effect of aging.
WGP incorporation resulted in the highest chloride diffusion co-
efficient and correspondingly greatest penetration depth indicating
its poor performance in regards to chloride ion penetration. WGS
showed the least penetrability, which is attributed to the greater
pozzolanic reactions (as already discussed earlier).
4. Conclusions
The objective of this research was to assess the effects of waste
glass powder (WGP) and waste glass sludge (WGS), which are
silica-based industrial byproducts, as a supplementary cementi-
tious material (SCM) in concrete. Conclusions can be summarized
as follows.
i. WGS and WGP can be successfully employed as partial
replacement of cement. However, WGS is more advanta-
geous over WGP in regards to strength and durability. The
strength of resulting concretes at early ages has been found
lower than normal concrete, however at later ages (90-day) it
is seen that WGS outperforms the normal concrete in
strength development.
ii. The better mechanical properties of WGS are attributed to
greater pozzolanic reactivity, higher surface area, finer par-
ticle size, and reduced total porosity of the resulting con-
cretes. It is imperative to have finer WGS particles for
enhanced properties.
iii. In terms of durability, the freezing and thawing resistance
test results confirmed that both WGP and WGS showed an
excellent durability factor at above 90%. The evaluation of
scaling resistance and rapid chloride penetration evaluation
confirmed that WGS outperforms WGP and cement incor-
porated concretes.
iv. By analyzing the XRD and porosity of resulting concretes, it
was confirmed that WGS had a superior micro filler effect
and reactivity. It was also concluded that the pozzolanic re-
action significantly contributed to the improvement of the
degree of compaction of concrete and increased the strength,
permeability and durability of the concrete as well.
Utilization of WGS and WGP would appreciably improve the
durability thus maximizing the applicability in structural and non-
structural concrete structures. Further, marine structures and
construction in cold regions are highly encouraged for such con-
crete use. To standardize WGP and WGS as SCMs, there is a need to
additionally conduct microscopic and hydration studies for the
qualitative assessment and quantitative analysis of hydration and
pore fillers according to the physical properties and the chemical
compositions of WGP and WGS.
Acknowledgement
This work was financially supported by a grant
(2015R1A2A2A01005286) from the National Research Foundation
of Korea (NRF) and a grant (16CTAP-C117247-01) by the R&D Pro-
gram from the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport of the
Korean Government.
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