PC Parts

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Let's take a look at the main components of a typical desktop computer:

• Central processing unit (CPU) - The microprocessor "brain" of the computer system is
called the central processing unit. It's a chip that holds a complete computational engine.
It uses assembly language as its native language. Everything that a computer does is
overseen by the CPU.
• Memory - This is very fast storage used to hold data. It has to be fast because it connects
directly to the microprocessor. There are several specific types of memory in a computer:
• Random-access memory (RAM) - Used to temporarily store information with
which the computer is currently working
• Read-only memory (ROM) - A permanent type of memory storage used by the
computer for important data that doesn't change
• Basic input/output system (BIOS) - A type of ROM that is used by the
computer to establish basic communication when the computer is first powered on
• Caching - The storing of frequently used data in extremely fast RAM that
connects directly to the CPU
• Virtual memory - Space on a hard disk used to temporarily store data and swap it
in and out of RAM as needed
• Flash memory - a solid state storage device, Flash memory requires no moving
parts and retains data even after the computer powers off
• Motherboard - This is the main circuit board to which all of the other internal
components connect. The CPU and memory are usually on the motherboard. Other
systems may be found directly on the motherboard or connected to it through a secondary
connection. For example, a sound card can be built into the motherboard or connected
through an expansion slot.
• Power supply - An electrical transformer regulates the electricity used by the computer.
• Hard disk - This is large-capacity permanent storage used to hold information such as
programs and documents. Traditional hard drives contain moving parts -- the drive has
platters on which it stores data. The drive spins the platters to record and read data. But
some newer hard drives are flash-based with no moving parts. These drives are called
solid-state drives.
• Operating system - This is the basic software that allows the user to interface with the
computer.
• Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) Controller - This is the primary interface for the
hard drive, CD-ROM and floppy disk drive.
• Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) - This is a very high-speed connection used by the
graphics card to interface with the computer.
• Sound card - This is used by the computer to record and play audio by converting analog
sound into digital information and back again.
• Graphics card - This translates image data from the computer into a format that can be
displayed by the monitor. Some graphics cards have their own powerful processing units
 (called a GPU -- graphics processing unit). The GPU can handle operations that normally
would require the CPU.
• Ports - In computer hardware terms, a port is an interface that allows a computer to
communicate with peripheral equipment.
Real-time clock - Every PC has a clock containing a vibrating crystal. By referring to
this clock, all the components in a computer can synchronize properly.
• Complementary Metal-oxide Semiconductor - The CMOS and CMOS battery allow a
computer to store information even when the computer powers down. The battery
provides uninterrupted power.
• Fans, heat sinks and cooling systems - The components in a computer generate heat. As
heat rises, performance can suffer. Cooling systems keep computers from overheating.

PC Connections
A typical computer connects to the world around it in three different ways: input/output devices,
ports and networking.

No matter how powerful the components inside your computer are, you need a way to interact
with them. This interaction is called input/output (I/O). The most common types of I/O in PCs
are:

• Monitor - The monitor is the primary device for displaying information from the
computer.
• Keyboard - The keyboard is the primary device for entering information into the
computer.
• Mouse - The mouse is the primary device for navigating and interacting with the
computer.
• Removable storage - Removable storage devices allow you to add new information to
your computer very easily, as well as save information that you want to carry to a
different location. There are several types of removable storage:
o CD-ROM - CD-ROM (compact disc, read-only memory) is a popular form of
distribution of commercial software. Many systems now offer CD-R (recordable)
and CD-RW (rewritable), which can also record. CD-RW discs can be erased and
rewritten many times.
o Flash memory - Based on a type of ROM called electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), Flash memory provides fast,
permanent storage. CompactFlash, SmartMedia and PCMCIA cards are all types
of Flash memory.
o DVD-ROM - DVD-ROM (digital versatile disc, read-only memory) is similar to
CD-ROM but is capable of holding much more information.

You may use Bluetooth or Wi-Fi to sync your music player or print driving directions, but many
computers still have ports to help you connect to a wide selection of peripherals. While there
have been others, two are most commonly found on newer computers:
 • Universal Serial Bus (USB) - The most popular external connection, USB ports offer
power and versatility and are incredibly easy to use.
• FireWire (IEEE 1394) - FireWire is a very popular method of connecting digital-video
devices, such as camcorders or digital cameras, to your computer.

Networking, especially to the Internet, is very important to today's computer users. Your
computer can probably use one or more of these methods:

• Modem - This is the standard method of connecting to the Internet.

• Local area network (LAN) card - This is used by many computers, particularly those in
an Ethernet office network, to connect to one another.
• Cable modem - This type of modem uses the cable system in your home, like the kind
you might use to subscribe to cable TV, to connect to the Internet.
• Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modem - This is a high-speed connection that works
over a standard telephone line.
• Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL) modem - A newer variation of DSL, VDSL requires
that your phone line have fiber-optic cables. An even faster version called the gigabit per
second DSL (GDSL) may follow [source: Cioffi, et al.].

BUS
A bus is simply a circuit that connects one part of the motherboard to another. The more data a
bus can handle at one time, the faster it allows information to travel. The speed of the bus,
measured in megahertz (MHz), refers to how much data can move across the bus simultaneously.

Bus speed usually refers to the speed of the front side bus (FSB), which connects the CPU to the
northbridge. FSB speeds can range from 66 MHz to over 800 MHz. Since the CPU reaches the
memory controller though the northbridge, FSB speed can dramatically affect a computer's
performance.

Here are some of the other busses found on a motherboard:

• The back side bus connects the CPU with the level 2 (L2) cache, also known as
secondary or external cache. The processor determines the speed of the back side bus.
• The memory bus connects the northbridge to the memory.
• The IDE or ATA bus connects the southbridge to the disk drives.
• The AGP bus connects the video card to the memory and the CPU. The speed of the
AGP bus is usually 66 MHz.
• The PCI bus connects PCI slots to the southbridge. On most systems, the speed of the
PCI bus is 33 MHz. Also compatible with PCI is PCI Express, which is much faster than
PCI but is still compatible with current software and operating systems. PCI Express is
likely to replace both PCI and AGP busses.

The faster a computer's bus speed, the faster it will operate -- to a point. A fast bus speed cannot
make up for a slow processor or chipset.
184-pin DDR DIMM RAM

Much of the memory available today is dual data rate (DDR) memory. This means that the
memory can transmit data twice per cycle instead of once, which makes the memory faster. Also,
most motherboards have space for multiple memory chips, and on newer motherboards, they
often connect to the northbridge via a dual bus instead of a single bus. This further reduces the
amount of time it takes for the processor to get information from the memory.

How RAM Works

Random access memory (RAM) is the best known form of computer memory. RAM is
considered "random access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the
row and column that intersect at that cell.

The opposite of RAM is serial access memory (SAM). SAM stores data as a series of memory
cells that can only be accessed sequentially (like a cassette tape). If the data is not in the current
location, each memory cell is checked until the needed data is found. SAM works very well for
memory buffers, where the data is normally stored in the order in which it will be used (a good
example is the texture buffer memory on a video card). RAM data, on the other hand, can be
accessed in any order.

Similar to a microprocessor, a memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made of millions of

transistors and capacitors. In the most common form of computer memory, dynamic random
access memory (DRAM), a transistor and a capacitor are paired to create a memory cell, which
represents a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a 1 (see How
Bits and Bytes Work for information on bits). The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control
circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.

For dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the memory controller has to come along and
recharge all of the capacitors holding a 1 before they discharge. To do this, the memory
controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens
automatically thousands of times per second.

This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.

This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be
dynamically refreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this
refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the memory.

In this article, you'll learn all about what RAM is, what kind you should buy and how to install it.
See the next page to learn more about dynamic RAM and memory cells.
Memory Cells and DRAM
Static RAM
Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds
each bit of memory (see How Boolean Logic Works for details on flip-flops). A flip-flop for a
memory cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed.
This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has more
parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell.
Therefore, you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive.

Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. So static
RAM is used to create the CPU's speed-sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger
system RAM space.

Types of RAM
The following are some common types of RAM:

• SRAM: Static random access memory uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for
each memory cell but doesn't have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for cache.
• DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells with a paired transistor
and capacitor requiring constant refreshing.
• FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form
of DRAM. It waits through the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row
and then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2
cache is approximately 176 MBps.
• EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for
all of the processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the
address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next bit. It is about
five percent faster than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264
MBps.
• SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst
mode concept to greatly improve performance. It does this by staying on the row
containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through the columns, reading each bit as
it goes. The idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence.
SDRAM is about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in
desktops today. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.
• DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM
except that is has higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2
cache is approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).
• RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the
previous DRAM architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line
 memory module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration to a standard
DIMM. What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus
called the Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data
rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate
much more heat than other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips
are fitted with a heat spreader, which looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are
smaller versions of DIMMs, there are also SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook
computers.
• Credit Card Memory: Credit card memory is a proprietary self-contained DRAM
memory module that plugs into a special slot for use in notebook computers.
• PCMCIA Memory Card: Another self-contained DRAM module for notebooks, cards
of this type are not proprietary and should work with any notebook computer whose
system bus matches the memory card's configuration.
• CMOS RAM: CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of memory used by your
computer and some other devices to remember things like hard disk settings -- see Why
does my computer need a battery? for details. This memory uses a small battery to
provide it with the power it needs to maintain the memory contents.
• VRAM: VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random access memory
(MPDRAM), is a type of RAM used specifically for video adapters or 3-D accelerators.
The "multiport" part comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two independent
access ports instead of one, allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the RAM
simultaneously. VRAM is located on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats,
many of which are proprietary. The amount of VRAM is a determining factor in the
resolution and color depth of the display. VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific
information such as 3-D geometry data and texture maps. True multiport VRAM tends to
be expensive, so today, many graphics cards use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM)
instead. Performance is nearly the same, but SGRAM is cheaper.

Memory Modules

The type of board and connector used for RAM in desktop computers has evolved over
the past few years. The first types were proprietary, meaning that different computer
manufacturers developed memory boards that would only work with their specific
systems. Then came SIMM, which stands for single in-line memory module. In most
computers, you had to install SIMMs in pairs of equal capacity and speed. This is
because the width of the bus is more than a single SIMM. For example, you would install
two 8-megabyte (MB) SIMMs to get 16 megabytes total RAM. Each SIMM could send 8
bits of data at one time, while the system bus could handle 16 bits at a time.
• As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability, the industry adopted a new
standard in dual in-line memory module (DIMM). With a whopping 168-pin or 184-pin
connector and a size of 5.4 x 1 inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in capacity from
8 MB to 1 GB per module and can be installed singly instead of in pairs. Most PC
memory modules and the modules for the Mac G5 systems operate at 2.5 volts, while
older Mac G4 systems typically use 3.3 volts. Another standard, Rambus in-line
memory module (RIMM), is comparable in size and pin configuration to DIMM but
uses a special memory bus to greatly increase speed.

Many brands of notebook computers use proprietary memory modules, but several
manufacturers use RAM based on the small outline dual in-line memory module
(SODIMM) configuration. SODIMM cards are small, about 2 x 1 inch (5 x 2.5 cm), and
have 144 or 200 pins. Capacity ranges from 16 MB to 1 GB per module. To conserve
space, the Apple iMac desktop computer uses SODIMMs instead of the traditional
DIMMs. Sub-notebook computers use even smaller DIMMs, known as MicroDIMMs,
which have either 144 pins or 172 pins.