Q.

Detail the Problem Identification Process

Problem identification provides the platform for investigating a broad range of

interventions and generating options. Initiatives developed in subsequent steps of
the Framework should address the problems identified here.

The process of problem identification involves the development of clear,

straightforward problem statements that can be linked directly with the specific goals
and objectives already identified in Step 1. These statements should clarify how the
problem might prevent the achievement of these goals and objectives.

Problem statements are tested and refined through more detailed analysis
undertaken as part of problem assessment and prioritisation (see sections 3 and 4
below).

When identifying problems, the following should be taken into account:

 Problems prevent the goals and objectives identified in the previous step from being
achieved. This should include the full range of objectives identified in the previous step
– including objectives for different levels of planning and markets.
 Problem identification should consider not only ‘problems’ or ‘challenges’, but also
constraints on opportunities that are preventing the goals and objectives from being
achieved.
 Identification should be based on empirical observations, such as data and information
obtained from surveys, demand modelling, interviews and studies from a wide range of
sources.

Problem identification should result in problem statements that describe the nature of
the problem facing the transport system and its components.

Q. Elaborate Descriptive Research Designs.

Descriptive research design is a scientific method which involves observing and

describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in any way.
Some subjects cannot be observed in any other way; for example, a social case study of
an individual subject is a descriptive research design and allows observation without
affecting normal behavior.
It is also useful where it is not possible to test and measure the large number of samples
needed for more quantitative types of experimentation. These types of experiments are
often used by anthropologists, psychologists and social scientists to observe natural behaviors
without affecting them in any way. It is also used by market researchers to judge the
habits of customers, or by companies wishing to judge the morale of staff.
A longitudinal study is observational research performed over a period of years or even
decades.
Longitudinal studies allow social scientists and economists to study long-term effects in
a human population.
A cohort study is a subset of the longitudinal study because it observes the effect on a
specific group of people over time. Quite often, a longitudinal study is an extended case
study, observing individuals over long periods, and is a purely qualitative undertaking.
The lack of quantitative data means that any observations are speculative, as with many
case studies, but they allow a unique and valuable perspective on some aspects of
human culture and sociology.
The cross sectional study looks at a different aspect than the standard longitudinal
study.
A cross sectional study, on the other hand, takes a snapshot of a population at a certain
time, allowing conclusions about phenomena across a wide population to be drawn.
An example of a cross-sectional study would be a medical study looking at the
prevalence of breast cancer in a population. The researcher can look at a wide range of
ages, ethnicities and social backgrounds. If a significant number of women from a
certain social background are found to have the disease, then the researcher can
investigate further.

Q. Recognize the advantages and disadvantages of using the questionnaire

A.

Advantages :

1. Questionnaires are inexpensive

Especially self-administered questionnaires, where you don’t have to hire surveyors
to perform face-to-face interviews, are a cost-efficient way to quickly collect massive
amounts of information from a large number of people in a relatively short period of
time.

2. Questionnaires are practical

Apart from being inexpensive, questionnaires are also a practical way to gather data.
They can be targeted to groups of your choosing and managed in various ways. You can
pick and choose the questions asked as well as the format (open-ended or multiple
choice). They offer a way to gather vast amounts of data on any subject. They can be
used in a wide variety of ways.

3. Questionnaires offer a quick way to get results

It’s quick and easy to collect results with online and mobile tools. This means that you
can gain insights in as little as 24 hours (or less!), depending on the scale and reach
of your questionnaire.

4. Scalability

Questionnaires and surveys allow you to gather information from a large audience.

5. Comparability

When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other
research and may be used to measure change. This makes monthly or yearly
questionnaire more and more valuable over time.

6. Easy Analysis and visualization

Most survey and questionnaire providers are quantitative in nature and allow easy
analysis of results. With built-in tools, it’s easy to analyze your results without a
background in statistics or scientific research.

7. Questionnaires offer actionable data

Look at research as a blank canvas.

The more data you gather, the clearer the painting becomes.

8. Respondent anonymity

Online and email surveys allow respondents to maintain their anonymity.

9. Questionnaires don’t have time constraints

When using mail-in, online or email questionnaires, there’s no time limit and there is no
one on the other end waiting for an answer. Respondents can take their time to
complete the questionnaire at their own leisure.

10. Questionnaires can cover every aspect of a topic

One of the biggest advantages is being able to ask as many questions as you like.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

1. Dishonest answers
While there are many positives to questionnaires, dishonesty can be an issue.

Respondents may not be 100% truthful with their answers.

2. Unanswered questions

When using questionnaires, there is a chance that some questions will be ignored or
left unanswered.

3. Differences in understanding and interpretation

The trouble with not presenting questions to users face-to-face is that each may
have different interpretations of your questions.

4. Hard to convey feelings and emotions

A survey or questionnaire cannot fully capture emotional responses or feelings of

respondents. Without administering the questionnaire face-to-face, there is no way to
observe facial expression, reactions or body language.

5. Some questions are difficult to analyze

Questionnaires produce a lot of data. Multiple choice questions can be tabulated and
graphed, but open-ended questions are different.

6. Respondents may have a hidden agenda

As with any sort of research, respondent bias can be an issue.

7. Lack of personalization

Customization is the prevailing marketing theme.

Any piece of marketing material is at risk of seeming impersonal unless time and care
are taken to personalize it. If you’re unable to add touches of personalization, some
potential respondents may be put off and ignore it.

8. Unconscientious responses
 Every administrator hopes for conscientious responses, but there’s no way to know if
the respondent has really understood the question or read it thoroughly before
answering.

9. Accessibility issues

No matter what form of delivery is used, lack of accessibility is a threat. Surveys may
be unsuitable for users with a visual or hearing impairment, or other impediments such
as illiteracy. This should be considered when choosing to do research in this manner.

10. Questionnaire or survey fatigue

We’ve all received survey invitations and the trend of companies using customer
feedback surveys is up. This means that some level of survey fatigue is setting in with
respondents

Q. Explain the levels of Data Editing.

Field editing in research methodology:

Field editing is defined as the process of completely reviewing the collected data and
editing the records based on the needs in the correct way. Field editing are generally
carried out by field supervisors .
Field editing is carried out for catching technical omissions and they help to clarify all
the doubts on the same day when the interview is been held
The main purpose of field editing is to control the quality of the existing data.
Example: Blank page on an interview form.
In-house editing:

 In the in-house editing, they investigate the results of the obtained data and perform the
coding functions and editing. Field editing are generally carried out by field
supervisors . After the data is analysed the editing is then performed

Field editing is carried out for catching technical omissions and they help to clarify all
the doubts on the same day when the interview is been held
Best example: If age is not indicated, then the respondent will be called to ensure the
information.
Q. Explain the steps used in testing of hypothesis exercise

Hypothesis Testing Procedure

The following steps are followed in hypothesis testing:

Set up a Hypothesis: The first step is to establish the hypothesis to be

tested. The statistical hypothesis is an assumption about the value of some
unknown parameter, and the hypothesis provides some numerical value or
range of values for the parameter. Here two hypotheses about the population
are constructed Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis.

Set up a Suitable Significance Level: Once the hypothesis about the

population is constructed the researcher has to decide the level of
significance, i.e. a confidence level with which the null hypothesis is accepted
or rejected. The significance level is denoted by ‘α’ and is usually defined
before the samples are drawn such that results obtained do not influence the
choice. In practice, we either take 5% or 1% level of significance.

Determining a Suitable Test Statistic: After the hypothesis are constructed,

and the significance level is decided upon, the next step is to determine a
suitable test statistic and its distribution. Most of the statistic tests assume the
following form:

Determining the Critical Region: Before the samples are drawn it must be
decided that which values to the test statistic will lead to the acceptance of
H0 and which will lead to its rejection. The values that lead to rejection of H0 is
called the critical region.

Performing Computations: Once the critical region is identified, we compute

several values for the random sample of size ‘n.’ Then we will apply the
formula of the test statistic as shown in step (3) to check whether the sample
results falls in the acceptance region or the rejection region.

Decision-making: Once all the steps are performed, the statistical

conclusions can be drawn, and the management can take decisions. The
decision involves either accepting the null hypothesis or rejecting it. The
 decision that the null hypothesis is accepted or rejected depends on whether
the computed value falls in the acceptance region or the rejection region.

Q. Define Chi-square Test for the Goodness of Fit & Variables

Chi-Square Goodness of Fit

Chi-Square goodness of fit test is a non-parametric test that is used to find out how the
observed value of a given phenomenon is significantly different from the expected value. In
Chi-Square goodness of fit test, the term goodness of fit is used to compare the observed
sample distribution with the expected probability distribution. Chi-Square goodness of fit
test determines how well theoretical distribution (such as normal, binomial, or Poisson) fits
the empirical distribution. In Chi-Square goodness of fit test, sample data is divided into
intervals. Then the numbers of points that fall into the interval are compared, with the
expected numbers of points in each interval.
Procedure for Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test:

 Set up the hypothesis for Chi-Square goodness of fit test:

A. Null hypothesis: In Chi-Square goodness of fit test, the null hypothesis assumes that there
is no significant difference between the observed and the expected value.
B. Alternative hypothesis: In Chi-Square goodness of fit test, the alternative hypothesis
assumes that there is a significant difference between the observed and the expected value.
 Compute the value of Chi-Square goodness of fit test using the following formula:

Where, = Chi-Square goodness of fit test O= observed value E=

expected value

The Chi-Square test of independence is used to determine if there is a significant relationship

between two nominal (categorical) variables. The frequency of each category for one nominal
variable is compared across the categories of the second nominal variable. The data can be
displayed in a contingency table where each row represents a category for one variable and
each column represents a category for the other variable. For example, say a researcher wants
to examine the relationship between gender (male vs. female) and empathy (high vs. low). The
chi-square test of independence can be used to examine this relationship. The null hypothesis
for this test is that there is no relationship between gender and empathy. The alternative
hypothesis is that there is a relationship between gender and empathy (e.g. there are more
high-empathy females than high-empathy males).
How to calculate the chi-square statistic by hand. First we have to calculate the expected
value of the two nominal variables. We can calculate the expected value of the two nominal
variables by using this formula:

Where
 = expected value

= Sum of the ith column

= Sum of the kth row

N = total number
After calculating the expected value, we will apply the following formula to calculate the value
of the Chi-Square test of Independence:

= Chi-Square test of Independence

= Observed value of two nominal variables

= Expected value of two nominal variables

Degree of freedom is calculated by using the following formula:
DF = (r-1)(c-1)
Where
DF = Degree of freedom
r = number of rows
c = number of columns