INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A technically elaborate approach to more efficient utilization of the DVR is to
equip it with additional controls and enable it also to limit or interrupt the downstream
fault currents. The main drawback of this approach is that the dc-link voltage of the
DVR increases due to real power absorption during fault current-limiting operation and
necessitates a switch to bypass the DVR when the protective relays, depending on the
fault conditions, do not rapidly clear the fault. The former function has been presented
in and the latter is described in this paper. It should be noted that limiting the fault
current by the DVR disables the main and the backup protection (e.g., the distance and
the over current relays). This can result in prolonging the fault duration. Thus, the DVR
is preferred to reduce the fault current to zero and interrupt it and send a trip signal to
the upstream relay or the circuit breaker (CB).
1.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM
The Dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is a custom power device utilized to
counteract voltage sags. It injects controlled three-phase ac voltages in series with the
supply voltage, subsequent to voltage sag, to enhance voltage quality by adjusting the
voltage magnitude, wave shape, and phase angle. Fig. 1 shows the main components of
a DVR (i.e., a series transformer, a voltage- source converter (VSC), a harmonic filter,
a dc-side capacitor, and an energy storage device). The line-side harmonic filter consists
of the leakage inductance of the series transformer and the filter capacitor.

Fig.1.1 Schematic diaram of a DVR with a line-side harmonic filter

+The DVR is conventionally bypassed during a downstream fault to prevent
potential adverse impacts on the fault and to protect the DVR components against the
fault current.

1
 The dc-link voltage increase can be mitigated at the cost of a slow-decaying dc
fault current component using the methods introduced in. To overcome the
aforementioned limitations, this paper proposes an augmented control strategy for the
DVR that provides: voltage-sag compensation under balanced and unbalanced
conditions and a fault current interruption (FCI) function.
It should be noted that the FCI function requires 100% voltage injection
capability. Thus, the power ratings of the series transformer and the VSC would be
about three times those of a conventional DVR with about 30%–40% voltage injection
capability.
1.3 ADVANTAGES OF A PREPOSED SYSTEM
This leads to a more expensive DVR system. Economic feasibility of such a
DVR system depends on the importance of the sensitive load protected by the DVR and
the cost of the DVR itself. The performance of the proposed control scheme is evaluated
through various simulation studies in the Simulink platform.
The study results indicate that the proposed control strategy:
1) Limits the fault current to less than the nominal load current and restores the PCC
voltage within less than 10 ms, and interrupts the fault current within two cycles;
2) It can be used in four- and three-wired distribution systems, and single-phase
configurations;
3) Does not require phase-locked loops;
4) It is not sensitive to noise, harmonics, and disturbances and provides effective fault
current interruption even under arcing fault conditions; and
5) Can interrupt the downstream fault current under-low dc-link voltage conditions.
1.4 THESIS OUTLINE
This thesis contains eight chapters. It is organized as follows: chapter 1 gives a
brief introduction to the project. Chapter 2 describes the introduction of power quality
and its problems. Chapter 3 describes the introduction of voltage sag and its causes.
Chapter 4 describes the FACTS and its types. Chapter 5 describes the introduction of
DVR and its types. Chapter 6 discuss about the simulation results. Chapter 7 deals with
conclusion. The later section covers the references for this document.

2
POWER QUALITY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Our technological field had became totally depend upon the continual obtain
ability of electrical power. In most areas economical power is made accessible via
nationwide grids, number of generating stations connecting to each other to the loads.
The grid should deliver basic countrywide requirements of lighting, air conditioning,
heating, residential, refrigeration and shipping in addition to the considerable deliver to
commercial, governmental, medicinal, fiscal, engineering, and communities of
communications. Economical power authentically permits today’s modern world to
operate at its busy grid.
Many power conundrums come in the economical power grid, which with its
thousands of kilometers of transmission lines is subjected to climatic conditions such
as snowfall, ice, hurricanes, lightning storms, and flooding along with apparatus failure,
chief switching operations and traffic accident. Also power conundrums damaged
today’s technological apparatus are often bring about locally within a expertise from
any number of conditions such as faulty distribution apparatus, intense start-up loads,
confined construction and even typical back-ground electrical noise.
Extensive utilize of electronics in the whole thing from domicile electronics to
an organizer of immense and expensive industrialized procedures has elevated the
associates of the power quality. Power quality or further particularly a disruption of
power quality is normally elucidated as any vary in power (current, frequency or
voltage) which interrupts with the common function of electrical machinery.
The revise of power quality and customs to regulate it is an apprehension for
electric services, hefty industrialized corporations, businesses and still residence
consumers. The revise has intensified as apparatus have turn into gradually more
susceptible to even tiny changes in the power supply of current, frequency and voltage.
“Power Quality is the grade to which both the delivery and utilization of electric
power change the accomplishment of electric apparatus”.
In common there is not a distinctive description of power quality. The setback
of power quality might be observed from two diverse angles associated to every side of
the consumer meter, specifically the Consumer and Utility. A substitute explanation of
PQ is accepted.

3
 A perfect power supply would be one that is always available always within
voltage and frequency tolerances and has a pure noise-free sinusoidal wave shape.
Power Quality means the ability of utilities to provide electric power without
interruption.
Mainly the seven types of Power Quality problems are there. They are
 Transients.
 Interruptions.
 Voltage Sag.
 Voltage Swell.
 Waveform distortion.
 Voltage fluctuations.
 Frequency variations.
2.1.1 TRANSIENTS
Potentially the most disturbing type of power disruptions transients fall into two
subclasses:
1. Impulsive.
2. Oscillatory.

2.1.2 IMPULSIVE

Impulsive transients are abrupt high peak contingency that increases the current
and/or voltage levels in any direction of a positive or negative direction. These kinds of
contingencies can be categorized further by the quick at which they happens (slow,
medium and fast).
Impulsive transients can be very quick contingencies. One instance of a
transient of positive impulsive originated by Electrostatic discharge (ESD) experience
is demonstrated in Fig 2.1
Reasons for transients of impulsive include poor grounding, lightning, utility
fault clearing, switching of inductive loads and ESD. The consequences can sort from
the failure (or corruption) of information to physical scratch of apparatus. Of these
reasons, lightning is possibly the more destructive.
2.1.3 OSCILLATORY
An oscillatory transient is a quick alteration in the condition of a steady-state of
a signal's voltage, current or both at the negative and positive signal boundaries
swinging at the expected frequency of system.

4
 In plain spans the transient basis the power signal to alternate swell and then
dwindle very quickly. Oscillatory transients commonly atrophy to zero within a cycle
(a deteriorating oscillation).
These transients happen when we turn off a load of capacitive or inductive N
load such as a motor or capacitor depository. Oscillatory transients overcome because
the load avoids the changes. This is corresponding to what arises when you abruptly
turn off a quickly flowing faucet and hear a battering noise in the pipes. The flowing
water withstands the alteration and the liquid corresponding of an oscillating transient
happens.

Fig.2.1 Positive Impulsive Transient

For instance leading distortion of a revolving motor it operates momentarily as
a generator as it powers along, thus generating electricity and delivering it in the course
of the allocation of electrical.

Fig.2.2 Oscillatory Transient

A long electrical network allocation might perform similar to an oscillator once
power is turned off or on, since all networks have several essential of inductance and
allocated capacitance that shortly energizes in a atrophying form.

5
 When oscillatory transients be seen on an energized circuit, frequently because
of utility switching functions (especially when capacitor banks are instinctively
switched into the network), they can be quite imitative to electronic apparatus.
Figure2.2 shows a distinctive low frequency Oscillatory Transient treatable to capacitor
banks being energized.
2.1.4 INTERRUPTIONS
Interruptions (Figure2.3) are explained as the total loss of load current or supply
voltage. Be determining on it’s during something continues, an interruption is can be
classified as transitory, immediate, sustained or temporary. Duration time for
interruption types are as escorts:
Momentary thirty (30) cycles to two (2) seconds
Instantaneous 1/2(0.5) to thirty (30) cycles
Sustained > (greater than) 2 minutes
Temporary 2 seconds to 2 minutes

Fig.2.3 Momentary Interruption

The basis of interruptions can change, but are commonly the fruits of some
kinds of electrical supply grid devastation such as destructive weather ( heavy ice or
snow on lines, soaring winds etc.), animals, radiance strikes, vehicle accidents, trees,
necessary circuit breaker tripping or a apparatus abandonment. While the utility basic
structures are drafted to automatically atone for many of these conundrums, it is not
dependable. One of the main usual examples of what can basis an interruption in
economical power systems are utility protective appliances such as involuntary circuit
re-closers.
Re-closers conclude the span of time of most instabilities need on the attributes
of the fault. Re-closers are apparatus used by utility assemblages to sense the raise in
current from a short circuit network in the service communications as well as to stop
flowing of the supply power when this happens. The re-closer will after a set span
deliver power back on line, in an effort to burn off the tangible creating the short circuit

6
(This tangencies is often a tree appendage or small degrading seize in a trap together
with the ground and line).
An interruption if it is transitory, instantaneous, sustained or temporary can
cause down-time, damage and disturbance from the industrial user up to the residence
user. A small business computer user or residence user could mislay valuable
information while information is degraded from failure of power to their application.
2.1.5 VOLTAGE SAG
A Voltage Sag is a curtailment of AC voltage next to a specified frequency for
the span of 0.5 cycles to 1 minute’s time. Sags be generally effected through system
faults and be as well frequently the consequence of switching on loads through heavy
startup currents.

Fig.2.4 Voltage Sag

Familiar causes of sags comprise starting large loads (such since one may see
while they first start up a huge air conditioning unit) along with remote fault clearing
achieved by utility appliance. Similarly, the starting of large motors within an industrial
ability is able to effect in important voltage drop (sag). A motor could withdraw six
times its convectional running current otherwise more, as starting. Creating a sudden
and large electrical load such like this will probably origin a important voltage drop to
the rest of the circuit it resides on.
But you could visualize someone turning on all the water in your house as
you’re in the shower. The water would maybe run cold with the water pressure would
fall. Certainly, to answer this problem you might include a second water heater that is
devoted to the shower. The matching holds true for circuits by large startup loads that
produce a large inrush current draw.
Although it might be the most valuable result adding a committed circuit for
large startup loads cannot forever be economical or practical, Particularly But a entire
ability has a numerous of bulky startup loads. Further results to large starting loads

7
comprise substitute power starting sources to do not load the respite of the electrical
communications at startup of motor much like, reduced-voltage starters, through also
star-delta or autotransformers configurations. A solid-state kind of soft starter is too
obtainable and is valuable at dropping the sag of voltage at start-up of motor. Mainly
in recent times, speed drives adjustable (ASDs), that change the speed of a motor in
agreement by the load (along through other uses), have been used to manage the
industrial procedure more economically and efficiently and as a added benefit, adopts
the conundrum of large motor starting.
While stated in the Interruptions sector, the efforts of the infrastructure of utility
to reduce distant faults might origin conundrums for end users. While this conundrum
is further evident it is seen as an interruption. However, it can also mark itself as sag
for conundrums that are cleared more rapidly or that are shortly frequent. Some of the
similar methods that were used to adopt interruptions can be exploited to adopt voltage
sags: system design, UPS equipment, and motor generators methods. Still, sometimes
the damage being affected by sags is not obvious until the outcomes are seen over time
(errors in industrial processing, data corruption, damaged appliance).
2.1.6 VOLTAGE SWELL
A swell is a reverse form of sag, containing a increase in AC voltages for a
duration of 0.5 cycles to 1 minute’s interval. For swells, rapid (especially large) load
declines high-impedance neutral associations and a fault of single-phase on a system
with three-phase is general supply.

Fig.2.5 Voltage Swell

The effect can be degradation of contacts of electrical, semiconductor break in
electronics, errors in data, insulation degradation and flickering of lights. UPS systems,

8
Power line conditioners and for resonant "control" transformers are familiar solutions.
Much similar swells, sags may not be evident until their consequences are seen.
Having power conditioning and/or UPS devices that also observe and log
incoming power events will help to calculate when and how often these actions happen.
2.1.7 WAVEFORM DISTORTION
Presently there are five major types of distortion in waveform
 DC offset
 Harmonics
 Inter harmonics
 Noise
 Notching
2.1.8 DC OFFSET
DC can be brought into an ac distribution system, frequently due to breakdown
of rectifiers inside the several ac to DC translation methodologies that have propagated
modern appliance. DC can navigate the ac power system and insert unnecessary current
to appliance already operating at their rated point. Saturation and overheating of
transformers could be the result of flowing DC currents. While a transformer saturates,
it is not simply gets warm, although it is not capable to carry full power to the load, and
the following waveform distortion can generate additional instability in electronic load
device. A DC offset is demonstrated in Figure 2.6.

Fig.2.6 DC Offset
The elucidation to DC offset conundrums is to substitute the faulty appliance
that is the source of the conundrum. Having very user replaceable, consumer
replaceable, and equipment can greatly raise the ease to determine DC offset

9
conundrums caused by faulty appliance, with less costs than may frequently be needed
for dedicated repair labor.
2.1.9 HARMONICS
Harmonic distortion is the base of the elementary sine wave at the frequencies
which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. (e.g., 150Hz is the triple harmonic
of a 50Hz frequency of fundamental 3 X 50 = 150).
Symptoms of harmonic troubles comprise excited transformers, neutral
conductors as well as further electrical distribution appliance and the circuit breakers
and deficit of synchronization on timing circuits that are reliant ahead a clean sine wave
start at the zero crossover point.

Fig.2.7 Typical Harmonic Waveform Distortion

Harmonic distortion has been an important conundrum with IT appliance in the
past, due to the kind of switch-mode power supplies (SMPS). Those non-linear loads
and many other capacitive models, as a substitute of drawing current more than every
full half cycle, “sip” power at each negative and positive peak of the voltage wave. The
return current, since it is only short-term, (almost 1/3 of a cycle) combines on the neutral
through all other returns from SMPS by means every of the three phases in the
characteristic distribution system. As a substitute of subtracting, the pulsed neutral
currents append mutually, creating very high neutral currents, at a hypothetical highest
of 1.73 times the phase maximum current.

10
 A congested neutral can control to enormously elevated voltages on the legs of
the delivery power, foremost to intense harm to attached appliance. At the same time,
the load for those multiple SMPS is pinched at the very peaks of every emf half-cycle,
which has frequently lead to transformer dispersion and subsequent overheating. Other
loads causal to this conundrum are large legacy UPS systems, changeable speed motor
drives, and lighting ballasts. Methods used to alleviate this conundrum have
incorporated installing K-rated transformers harmonic filters in addition to over-sizing
the neutral conductors.
2.1.10 HARMONICS MITIGATION TECHNIQUE
The generation of harmonics, whenever an adjustable speed drive is used, is
inevitable. The order and magnitude of these harmonics will greatly depend on the drive
configuration and system impedance.
Phase Multiplication:
Whether the drive is AC or DC, the common means of reducing harmonics
generation while in the design process is by phase multiplication or harmonic
cancellation. It is effective in reducing low order harmonics as long as the load is
balanced.
Passive filters:
Improved power factor reduces high frequency harmonics. Large tuning
reactors are not used as instability may occur due to parallel resonance with the source
impedance. Performance depends upon source impedance; it cannot be measured
accurately and can vary with system changes.

Active filters:

With improved power factor, the output current can be controlled. Active filters
provide stable operation against AC source impedance variation, and fast responsive
irrespective of the order and magnitude of harmonics. These filters are appropriate for
cyclo-converters. The initial and running costs are usually higher than passive filters.
The injection may flow into other components.
Harmonic injection:
Harmonic injection takes care of uncharacteristic harmonics. System
impedance is not a part of the design criteria as it may give rise to low order harmonics.
Harmonic mitigation techniques with PWM:

11
harmonics can be reduced to less than one per cent of the fundamental with the help of
PWM; it is programmable to eliminate specific harmonics. In addition to the above
techniques, harmonics can be reduced by a number of circuit techniques.
2.1.11 INTERHARMONICS
Inter harmonics (Fig.2.8) are a kind of waveform distortion that are typically
the consequence of a signal inflicted on the supply voltage by electrical appliance such
as static induction motors ,static frequency converters. Cycloconverters (which control
large linear motors used in mining equipment, cement and rolling mill), craft some of
the generally important inter harmonic supply power conundrums. Those appliances
change the supply voltage keen on AC voltage with frequency higher or lower than the
frequency of supply. The mainly obvious result of inter harmonics is visual flickering
of incandescent lights and displays, with causing perhaps communication interference
and heat.

Fig.2.8 Inter Harmonic Waveform Distortion

Solutions to inter harmonics include UPS systems, line conditioners and filters.
2.1.12 NOTCHING
Notching (Fig.2.9) is a intermittent voltage troubles caused by electronic
devices, such as light dimmers, arc welders and variable speed drives beneath normal
operation. This conundrum could be explained as a transient impulse conundrum,
however since the notches periodic over each ½ cycle notching is are considered a
waveform distortion conundrum. The common effects of notching are data loss, data
loss and data loss problems.

12
 One resolution for notching is to shift the load out from the machine causing the
conundrum (if possible). Filter equipment and data loss are also viable solutions to
notching if appliance cannot be displaced.

Fig.2.9 Notching
2.1.13 NOISE
Noise (Figure 2.10) is unnecessary current or voltage superimposed on the
power system current or voltage waveform.
Noise can be produced by control circuits, power electronic devices, switching
power supplies, radio transmitters, arc welders and more. Defectively grounded
networks create the system additional liable to noise. Noise can cause technical
appliance conundrums such as equipment malfunction, data errors, long-term
component failure, distorted video displays and hard disk failure.

Fig.2.10 Noise
These are numerous dissimilar tactics to controlling noise and at the times it is
essential to use several dissimilar methods jointly to attain the wanted result. Some
techniques are:
• Install a grounded, shielded isolation transformer
• Isolate the load via a UPS
• Shielding of Cable
• Shuffle the load far from the source of interference
• Install filters for noise

13
2.1.14 VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS
While voltage fluctuations are essentially dissimilar from the rest of the
waveform abnormalities, these are located in their own group.

Fig.2.11 Voltage Fluctuations

A Voltage fluctuation (Figure2.11) is a systematic deviation of the voltage
waveform or a series of random voltage alters of small proportions specifically 95 to
105% of nominal at a low frequency usually below 25 Hz.
Any load displaying important current deviations can cause voltage variations.
Arc furnaces are the mainly familiar cause of voltage variation on the distribution and
transmission system. One indication of this conundrum is flickering of incandescent
lamps. Removing the apparent load, reposition the sensitive appliance or UPS or
installing power line conditioning appliances are schemes to resolve this conundrum.
2.1.15 FREQUENCY VARIATIONS
Frequency variation (Figure 2.12) is enormously odd in stable utility power
systems, particularly systems be linked via a power grid. Wherever sites have devoted
poor power infrastructure or standby generators, frequency deviation is more familiar,
particularly if the generator is heavily loaded. Its appliance is frequency tolerant and
usually not influenced by slight shifts in local generator frequency. What would be
affected would be any sensitive device or motor device that relies on steady common
cycling of power over time. Frequency deviations may effect a motor to run slower or
faster to tone with the input power frequency. It would affect the motor to run
inadequately and/or guide to added degradation and heating of the motor throughout
improved speed of motor and/or added drawn current.

14
 To correct this conundrum all produced sources of power and other sources of
power making the deviation in frequency should be reviewed, and then renovated,
corrected.

Fig.2.12 Variations of Frequency

2.2 SOLUTIONS FOR PROBLEMS OF POWER QUALITY
There are two methodologies to the improvement of power quality conundrums.
The elucidation to the power quality can be made from utility side or from customer
side. Primary method is called load conditioning, which make certain that the appliance
is less sensitive to power instability, permitting the operation still under important
voltage alteration.
The further solution is to set up line conditioning systems that counteracts or
suppress the power system interruptions. A versatile and flexible solution to voltage
quality conundrums is accessible by active power filters. Presently they are built on
PWM converters and attach to medium and low voltage distribution system in series or
in shunt. Series active power filters should operate in concurrence with shunt passive
filters in order to balance load current harmonics.
Shunt active power filters manage as a series active power filters and
controllable current source functions as a controllable voltage source. Both methods are
executed preferable through voltage source PWM inverters, by a dc bus having a
reactive component such as a capacitor. Active power filters can carry out one or more
of the roles necessitated for improving power quality and compensate power systems.
Their accomplishments also depend on the power rating with the speed of response.
Solutions will play a main function in the progressing of the natural supply
quality; some of the economic and effective measures can be recognized as following:
2.2.1 LIGHTENING AND SURGE ARRESTERS

15
 The Arresters are measured for lightening protection of transformers; however
are not adequately voltage preventing for protecting sensitive electronic control circuits
as surges of voltage.
2.2.2 STATIC SWITCHES BASED ON THYRISTOR
The static switch is a adaptable appliance for switching a new component into
the circuit while the voltage maintain is desirable. It has a dynamic response time of
regarding one cycle. To correct rapidly for interruptions, sags or voltage spikes, the
stagnant switch can used to control single or extra of appliances such as energy storage
systems, filter, alternate power line, capacitor, etc. This static switch could be used in
the different power line purposes. This method needs two independent power networks
as of the service or might be from localized and utility power making similar to those
in case of circulated generating schemes. Such a system could protect up to about 85
% of voltage sags and interruptions.
2.2.3 SYSTEMS OF ENERGY STORAGE
Storage methods might be used for protecting perceptive construction
application from shutdowns caused by momentary interruptions or momentary
interruptions.
Those are usually DC storage systems such as superconducting magnet energy
storage (SMES), batteries, UPS, even fly wheels or driving DC generators storage
capacitors. The output of these appliances can be supplied to the system during an
inverter on a quick basis by a fast acting electronic switch. Adequate energy is fed to
the system for compensating the energy that could be vanished by the disruption or
voltage sag. In case of supply utility supported by a local generation that could be still
enhanced achieved.

2.2.4 ELECTRONIC TRANSFORMER WITH TAP CHANGING

A transformer of voltage-regulating through an electronic load tap changer

could be used with a single contour from the service. It can control the voltage drops
up to 50% and need a stiff system (short circuit power to load ratio of 10:1 or better).
This could have the terms of smooth steps or coarse intended for intermittent voltage
changes.

2.2.5 HARMONIC FILTERS

16
 Filters are used in a few cases to efficiently eliminate or reduce particular
harmonics. If perhaps, it is forever preferable to use a 12-pluse or higher transformer
connection, significantly than a filter. Tuned harmonic filters must be used through
concerned and prevented when perhaps. Usually, multiple filters are desired, each tuned
to a detach harmonic. Each filter basis a series resonance as well as a parallel resonance,
and each filter a little modifies the resonances of supplementary filters.
2.2.6 CONSTANT-VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
For several studies of power quality, it is perhaps to greatly develop the
momentary interruption tolerance and sag of a capability by shielding controlling
circuits. Constant voltage transformer (CVTs) can be used on manage circuits to afford
constant voltage through three cycle ride through, or ac contactors and relays can be
afforded with electronic coil hold-in appliances to avoid mis-operation from either
interrupted or low voltage.
2.2.7 INTELLIGENT CONTROLLERS AND DIGITAL-ELECTRONIC FOR
CONTROLLING LOAD-FREQUENCY
The supply power Frequency is entity of the chief determinants of power quality,
which disturbs the machine functioning very significantly. Even the chief system
apparatus such as interconnected-grid control and Turbine life are exactly exaggerated
by power frequency. Load frequency controller used specially for directing power
frequency under changeable loads must be fast adequate to make modifications opposed
to any variation. In countries like India and other countries of emerging world, still use
of the controllers those are based either electrical devices or mechanical devices with
expected delays and dead time and at times also tolerates from ageing and associated
effects. In coming view, such controllers can be restored by their Digital –electronic
equivalent.
2.3 USING CONVENTIONAL POWER DEVICES FOR THE
IMPROVING OF POWER QUALITY
In classify to conquer the conundrums such as the ones stated above, the theory
of custom power appliances is established freshly; custom power is approach, which is
modeled mainly to meet the necessities of commercial and industrial customer.
The idea of custom power is to use static controllers or power electronic in the
medium voltage distribution system planning to supply high quality and reliable power

17
to sensitive users. Power electronic valves are the origin of these custom power
applications such as the active filters, converter-based devices and static transfer switch.
Converter based power electronics applications could be classified in to two
categories: series-connected and shunt-connected appliances. The shunt associated
appliance is recognized as the DSTATCOM and the series appliance is recognized as
the Static Series Compensator (SSC), commercially recognized as DVR. This had also
been accounted in writing that both the DSTATCOM and SSC had been used to
alleviate the popularly the power system conflicts such as voltage sags, dips, harmonics
and flicker unbalance.
For the magnitude of load voltage, sags of lower voltage could be rectified by
inserting only reactive power into the system. Although, for higher injection of active
power, voltage sags, in addition to reactive power, is essential to support the voltage
magnitude. Both DSTATCOM and DVR are competent of absorbing or generating
reactive power however the active power insertion of the appliance should be afford
by an energy storage system or external energy source.

VOLTAGE SAG

18
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Voltage sag as described by IEEE Standard 1159-1995, IEEE suggested
carryout for Monitoring Electric Power Quality, as a reduce in voltage of RMS at the
power frequency of span from 0.5 cycles to 1 minute, conveyed as the residual voltage.
The measurement of voltage sag is affirmed as a proportion of the supposed
voltage; it is a dimension of the residual voltage and is affirmed as sag to a fraction
value. Hence a voltage sag to 60% is equivalent to 60% of supposed voltage, otherwise
288 volts for a nominal 480 Volt system.
3.2 CAUSES OF VOLTAGE SAGS
3.2.1 OPERATION OF RE-CLOSERS AND CIRCUIT BREAKERS
But, for any reason, a re-closer or a sub-station circuit breaker is tripped,
subsequently the line so as to it is supply will be temporarily detached. All other feeder
lines as of the same substation system will saw this detachment event as voltage sag
which will expand to consumers on these other lines. The intensity of the sag of voltage
at the customer’s location will vary depending on the line voltage supply and the
remoteness from the error due to fault. In general, a superior voltage supply can have a
larger sag influenced zone.
3.2.2 SINGLE-PHASE SAGS AND MULTI-PHASE SAGS
3.2.2.1 Single-Phase Sags
The most frequent sags of voltage, above 70%, are of single-phase actions
which are characteristically owing to a fault of phase-to-ground occurring someplace
on the arrangement. This fault due to phase-to-ground appears as voltage sag of single
phase on further feeders from the unchanged substation. Usually sources are contact of
animal, strikes of lightning, etc. It is not infrequent for seeing the voltage sags of single
phase to 30% of supposed voltage or yet inferior in industrialized systems.

3.2.2.2 Phase-to-Phase Sags

Phase-to-phase, Two-phase sags might be caused by adverse weather, animals,

and branches of tree or collision of vehicle with poles of utility. The voltage sag of two-
phase will naturally seem on additional feeders commencing the identical substation.
3.2.2.3 Phase Sags
Symmetrical three-phase sags report for fewer than 20% of all the sag measures
as well as are origin either by tripping or switching of a three-phase circuit breaker, re-
closer or switch which will create a voltage sag of three-phase on additional lines fed

19
from the similar substation. Sags of Three-phase may also be resulted by initializing
heavy motors, except this kind of incident normally results voltage sags to roughly 80%
of supposed voltage and are typically restricted to an industrialized plant or its
instantaneous neighbor.
3.3 VOLTAGE SAGS AFFECT PRODUCTION
Both single-phase and multi-phase voltage sags may result accidental
generation stoppages however single-phase (120V) controlling devices and sensors of
electronic may be very susceptible to the voltage sags. Recent electronic appliance
necessitates more precise voltage regulation than traditional appliances such as
induction motors. While the modern industry used motorized devices and gear sachets
for controlling its processing speed, various of which be comparatively slow and
essential physical process or involvement by the operators, variations of voltage were
not such a severe concern.
Computerization has guide to electronic automatic sensing, elevated speed
processing and manages; accuracy machine apparatus have complicated controls of
electronic, changeable velocity drives have substituted several gearboxes and any
accidental mechanized work stoppage might be very pricey. Controls of Electronic
procedure, sensors, controls with computer, PLCs and changeable velocity drives, still
conservative relays of electrical are all too a few amount inclined to sags of voltage.
In several situations, lone or more of such devices might trip if there is a sag of
voltage to fewer than 90% of supposed voltage, still if the interval is simply for single
or two cycles. The instant to resume generation following such an unintentional
stoppage may usually be calculated in minutes, hours or even days. Expenses for each
incident may be numerous dollars of tens of thousands.

3.4 COST OF VOLTAGE SAGS

A modern EPRI study proposes the price to industry of North American making
stoppages produced by voltage sags now surpass US$250 billion per annum.
Frequently, industrial customers condemn their local electrical supply utility for
unexpected production obstacles and claim that other fields have “much improved
power quality”. Unluckily, in many cases there is nothing or tiny the utility can do. This

20
is true that assured fractions of North America practice additional storms than the
others, thus sags of voltage are further common in some areas.
Still in desert areas storms, lightning strikes and devoid of trees occur. Certain
the large distances between consumers and power plants in North America, the price of
subversive conductors on every voltage should be unaffordable, even if underground
rights-of-way were obtainable. Few consumers should wish to see those utility power
bills raise several crease in sort to compensate for this.
Extremely little utilities, wherever in the globe, obtain voltage sags. Still those
by total subversive systems in a little geography region such as in Singapore experience
voltage sags. These may be due to harm to cables by digging for new erection or due to
malfunction of electrical appliances from overloads, faults on cable etc.

FACTS
The expression “FACTS” (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) cover a number
of power electronics base system use for AC power distribution and broadcast. Set the
life of power electronics apparatus, FACTS solution force is mainly acceptable in
application require one or added of the following behavior:
(a) Rapid dynamic response

21
 (b) Ability for frequent variations in output
(c) Smoothly adjustable output
The FACTS are relations of strategy that can be insert into power grids in
sequence, in various cases and in shunt, together in shunt and series. Flexible AC
Transmission Systems call for FACTS, get in the current years a well known term for
more controllability in power systems by resources of power electronic appliances.
Numbers of FACTS-appliances have been introduces for a variety of applications
universal. An integer of new types of appliances is in the step of being commenced in
performing.
In the majority of the functions the controllability is use to let alone cost
concentrated or setting require extension of power system, intended for example like
upgrade or add-ons of substations and power outline FACTS-devices give a improved
adaptation to changeable outfitted conditions and get better the procedure of existing
installation.
The power electronic based flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) have
been developed and used as economical and efficient means to control the power
transfer in the interconnected AC transmission systems. This allows forcing the power
transit in the lines with higher transmission capacity.
4.1 TYPES OF FACTS DEVICES
The growth of FACTS-appliances has ongoing with the increasing capability of
power electronic components. Appliances for more power levels have been complete
available in converters used for more and even peak voltage level. The in general initial
points are network elements influence the useless power or the impedance of a fraction
of the power coordination. Fig 4.1 shows an integer of basic appliances divided into the
predictable ones and the FACTS-appliances.
Intended for the FACTS side, the classification in conditions of 'dynamic' with
'static' requires some clarification.
The word 'dynamic' is use to convey the fast controllability of FACTS-
appliances provide through the power electronics of the system. This is one of the major
separation factors from the predictable appliances. The word 'static' proceeds that the
appliances have no touching parts like mechanical switch to achieve the dynamic
controllability of system. Consequently most of the FACTS-appliances can similarly
be static along with dynamic.

22
 A power electronic based system & added static apparatus that give manage of
one or other AC transmission parameters.
The types of FACTS controllers are:
• SERIES
• SHUNT
• SERIES-SHUNT
• SERIES-SERIES

Fig.4.1 General Idea of main FACTS-appliances

The absent article in above outline contain the predictable appliances build out
of permanent or automatically switch able apparatus similar to R, Land C added with
the transformers.
The FACTS-appliances contains these fundamentals as well except use added
power electronic valve or converters to knob the fundamentals in lesser steps or with
switching patterns surrounded by a cycle of the asymmetrical flow of electronics. The
missing article of FACTS-appliances used Thyristor valves and converters. The valves
otherwise converters are well known because a number of years. These include low
losses since of their low switching frequency of just the once a series in the converters
or the procedure of the thyristors to basically bridge impedances within the valve. The
correct article of FACTS-appliances contain additional superior knowledge of voltage

23
source converters base nowadays mostly on IGBT or else IGCT. Voltage Source
Converters give a free of charge convenient voltage in level and phase due to a pulsation
width modulation of the IGBTs or else IGCTs. Far above the ground modulation
frequencies permit to find small harmonics in the o/p signal with even to recompense
instability upcoming from the system. The drawback is that with an increase switch
frequency, the fatalities are growing as healthy. Consequently particular design of the
converters is necessary to condense.
4.2 APPLICATIONS OF FACTS APPLIANCES
Reliable of AC Transmission Systems, calls for FACTS, get in the current years
a well known term for more controllability in power systems by resources of power
electronic appliances. Number of FACTS-appliances has be introduce for a variety of
applications universe. Still higher concepts of configurations of FACTS appliances are
discuss in investigate and prose.
In the majority of the functions the controllability is use to let alone cost
concentrated or setting require extension of power system, intended for example like
upgrade or add-ons of substations and power outline FACTS-devices give a improved
adaptation to changeable outfitted conditions and get better the procedure of existing
installation.
The essential applications of FACTS appliances are
Flow of controlling power
 Enhance of transmission capacity
 Control of the voltage
 The useless power is reduces
 Enhancement the stability
 Improving the quality of power
 The condition power
 Flicker alleviation
 The Interconnect of renewable and dispersed production and storages.
In the all applications are realistic necessities, desires and advantages have to
be consider suspiciously to give explanation for the speculation into a difficult new
apparatus.

24
 The Fig.4.16 shows the fundamental proposal of FACTS for transmission
systems. The convention of lines for true power transmission must be idyllically up to
the thermal restrictions.
The Voltage and immovability restrictions shall be shift with the income of the
a number of unlike FACTS appliances. It can be shown that with rising line length, the
chance for FACTS appliances getting high and more significant. The authority of
FACTS appliances is achieve throughout switched and controlled shunt compensation,
the series recompense or phase change regulate. The diplomacy work electrically as
quick flow of electrons, voltage or impedance controller. The power electronic allows
very little reaction period downward to far under one second. In the subsequent a
planned general idea on FACTS appliances is giving. Those appliances are map to their
dissimilar fields of applications. Complete introduction in FACTS appliances can also
be establish in the prose with the main spotlight on basic knowledge, model and control.

TABLE.4.1 ESTIMATED NUMBER OF FACTS DEVICES INSTALLED WORLD WIDE

DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The proliferation of voltage sensitive equipment in industrial sector has made
industrial processes more vulnerable to supply voltage deviations. Such voltage
deviations in the form of voltage sag, swell or temporary outage cause severe process

25
disruptions resulting in millions of dollars of loss of revenue. Therefore, power supply
authorities as well as customers have been desperately looking for a cost-effective
solution currently to ride through momentary power supply disturbances. As such, the
proposition of a novel custom power device called Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
for compensating voltage disturbances in distribution systems has generated a great
deal of interest recently. Apart from the DVR, some researchers have proposed several
other devices to mitigate momentary disturbances. Among those, static voltage booster
and unified voltage controller have been noteworthy.

The DVR is the most economic and effective means in improving the voltage
relative power quality problems. The DVR is power electronics based solution that
employs series voltage boost technology for compensating voltage sags / swells.

The DVR usually consists of an injection transformer, which is connected in

series with the distribution line; a voltage sourced PWM Inverter Bridge which is
connected to the secondary of the injection transformer and an energy storage device
(batteries, capacitors…etc.) connected at the dc-link of the inverter bridge.

Among the voltage transients (sags, swells, harmonics…), the voltage sags are
the most severe disturbance. The users may improve end-use devices or use protection
devices to reduce the number of voltage sags. But overall solution to mitigate the
voltage sags and recovering the load voltage to the pre-fault value is using a Dynamic
Voltage Restorer (DVR). It is a solid state DC to AC switching power electronic
converter that injects three single-phase AC voltages in series between the feeder and
sensitive load. Furthermore DVR can be designed to reduce phase unbalance and
compensate voltage harmonics . Using a DVR is more reliable and quick solution to
maintain with a clean supply of electricity for customers. But standby losses, equipment
costs and required large investigation for design are the main drawbacks of DVR.
5.2 DVR OPERATION MODES
The basic operation principle of DVR is measuring the missing voltage by using
control unit and injecting the dynamically controlled missing voltage in series to the
line and providing the load voltage unchanged during sag (Won et al., 2003; Daehler et
al., 2000).

The phase angle and amplitude of the injected voltage are variable during sag.

26
This will allow the control of active and reactive power exchange between the DVR
and the distribution system. Generally, the operation of the DVR can be categorized
into three operation mode: protection mode, standby mode (during steady state) and
injection mode (during sag).

The DVR is connected in the utility primary distribution feeder as shown in Fig.
5.1. This location of DVR will mitigate the certain group of customer by faults on the
adjacent feeder.

Fig. 5.1: The location of DVR

The energy storage unit is common voltage source for PWM inverter and it is
composed of DC capacitor bank. The PWM inverter unit produces required missing
voltage by evaluating the control unit signals and this compensating voltage is inserted
to the system by injection transformers.
5.2.1 Protection Mode
The DVR will be isolated from the system if the system parameters exceed the
predetermined limits primarily current on load side. The main reason for isolation is
protecting the DVR from the over current in the load side due to short circuit on the
load or large inrush currents. The control system detects faults or abnormal conditions
and manages bypass (transfer) switches to remove the DVR from system thus
preventing it from damages as shown in Fig.5.2.

27
 Fig. 5.2: Scheme of the protection mode

During the over current period, S1 will be closed; S2 and S3 will be

opened so there will be another path for current to flow. By removing the DVR from
system at fault condition, the effects of additional disturbances that can be caused by
the DVR are prevented onto the system.

5.2.2 Standby Mode

In standby mode (normal steady state conditions), the DVR may either go into
short circuit operation or inject small voltage to compensate the voltage drop on
transformer reactance or losses. Short circuit operation of DVR is generally preferred
solution in steady state because the small voltage drops do not disturb the load
requirements. The solid-state bypass switches are used to perform short circuit
operation and they are placed between the inverter and secondary (low side) of series
injection transformer as shown in Fig. 5.3.

28
Fig.5.3: Scheme of the standby mode

If the distribution circuit is weak there is need to inject small compensation

voltage to operate correctly. During short circuit operation, the injected voltages and
magnetic fluxes are virtually zero thereby full load current pass through the primary.
The DVR will be most of the time in normal mode operation. During standby mode
normal operation), the short circuit impedance of the injection transformer determines
the voltage drop across the DVR.

5.2.3 Injection Mode

The primary function of Dynamic Voltage Restorer is compensating voltage

disturbances on distribution system. To achieve compensation, three single-phase ac
voltages are injected in series with required magnitude, phase and wave shape. The
types of voltage sags, load conditions and power rating of DVR will determine the
possibility of compensating voltage sag.

5.3 AVAILABLE VOLTAGE INJECTION STRATEGIES

The DVR should ensure the unchanged load voltage with minimum energy
dissipation for injection. The characteristic of load determines the required control
strategy to inject compensation voltage. The methods for injection of missing voltage
can be divided into four groups (Chung et al., 2003; Won et al., 2003):

 Pre-sag compensation method

 In-phase voltage injection method
 Phase advance method
 Voltage tolerance method with minimum energy injection

29
5.3.1 Pre-sag Compensation Method

This method injects the difference voltage between remaining voltages at PCC
and pre-fault voltage to the system during sag as shown in Fig.5.4. The rms values of
load voltage on the arc have the same magnitude (1 p.u voltage) with different phase
angles. The corrected voltage is the same with pre-sag voltage and this strategy can be
used with balanced and unbalanced voltage sag.

Vdvr = VLprefault − Vpcc (5.1)

VLprefault is the pre-fault load voltage vector; VL is the load voltage

vector; Vdvr is the DVR voltage vector (injected).

Fig. 5.4: Vector diagram of pre-sag method

Some non-linear loads are very sensitive to phase angle jumps. It is the best
solution to restore the sensitive load voltage to the same phase angle and magnitude as
the nominal pre-sag voltage. As seen from single-phase vector diagram, the ideal
restoration is achieved. However, there is no control on injected active power so high
capacity energy storage is required.

5.3.2 Inphase Voltage Injection Method

30
 In second method injected voltage is in-phase with supply voltage. The
magnitude of the injected voltage is minimized but it can cause phase shift between the
remaining voltage vector at PCC and the pre-sag voltage as shown in Fig.5.5.

Vdvr = DVp = VL -Vpcc (5.2)

Vp is the rated per-phase rms value of the primary feeder; D is the maximum
voltage sag.

Fig. 5.5: Vector diagram of in-phase method

The phase angles of the pre-sag and load voltage are different but the most
important criteria for power quality, which is the constant magnitude of load voltage,
is satisfied. For a given load current and voltage sag, the apparent power of DVR is
minimized.

|VL | = |VLprefault | (5.3)

5.3.3 Phase Advance Method

31
 In third method, decreasing the power angle between the remaining voltage and
the load current minimizes real power spent by DVR. Pre-sag compensation and in-
phase compensation inject active power to the critical load during sag.

PDVR = Pout - Pin (5.4)

Active power is limited by stored energy in DC link and this part is one of the
most expensive parts of DVR. The minimum energy injection is realized by making
active power zero by having the remaining voltage phasor perpendicular to load current
as shown in Fig. 5.6. The values of load current and voltage are fixed in the system so
injection power of DVR (PDVR ) depends on only the advance angle φ when Vpcc and
θ have been given by the fault condition in the fixed xy plane.

Fig. 5.6: Vector diagram of phase advance method

Pin is the input power from the supply; Pout is the load power; Vip1 * I is the
injected active power in-phase injection mode; Vip2 * I is the injected active power in
phase advance mode.

The energy saving and compensation are achieved by using reactive power
instead of active power. The main drawbacks of this method are increased magnitude

32
of injected voltage, phase shift, waveform discontinuity and complexity of the control
system.

In the phase advance method, the magnitude of restored load voltage should be
equal to magnitude of pre-fault voltage. The source voltage and voltage injection limit
of DVR will determine the minimum energy injection operation point. In Fig.5.6,
operating point is denoted by D. Injected active power decreases when β increases and
θ decreases.

In this method the magnitude of source voltage Vpcc is not changed. By

decreasing the power angle of Vpcc at the same magnitude, the injected energy is
minimized and it can be understood by using main power formula. It shows smaller the
power angle smaller the power value. This method requires delay time to move phase
angle from pre-sag angle to advance angle by decreasing the angle between source
voltage and load current at the same source voltage magnitude.

If Vpcc (V0 cos φ and there is no limit for injection the operating point can lie
on the arc AB . If θ= 0 , the injected power value (Vip2 * I ) approaches the minimum.
When the voltage Vpcc) V0 cos φ and again no limit is laced on the magnitude of
injection voltage of DVR, the operating point can be anywhere on the arc EF . Zero
power injection is at point F before θ approaches zero. However decreased θ causes
the magnitude of injection voltage increases.

The magnitude of the injected voltage is the most important factor for economic
consideration. Equation (5.5) calculates required magnitude of the voltage.

Vi = √V02 + Vpcc
2 − 2V V
0 pcc cos φ (5.5)

In this method, the power consumption of DVR during sag is only related with
advance angle. The best operating point is obtained when the DVR injects zero active
power neither positive nor negative.

By minimizing the magnitude of the injected voltage, the capacity of energy

storage device can be reduced. The phase advance method injects minimum energy
compared to pre-sag and in-phase method. But it has not good performance when deep
voltage sags or large phase angle shifts occur.

33
5.3.4 Voltage Tolerance Method with Minimum Energy Injection

In fourth method, the phase angle and magnitude of corrected load voltage
within the area of load voltage tolerance are changed as shown in Fig. 5.7. The small
voltage drop and phase angle jump on load can be tolerated by load itself. The
sensitivity of loads to phase angle jump and voltage magnitude is different. The
magnitude and phase are control parameters of this method to achieve the minimum
energy injection. The phase advance method uses only phase difference but this method
uses both control parameters.

Fig. 5.7: Vector diagram of voltage tolerance method

As stated before the voltage tolerance area is dependent on load. Some loads are
sensitive to phase angle shift and other loads are sensitive to voltage magnitude
variations. The operating point is determined by considering the load characteristic.
According to below formula active power at the load side and source side can be
calculated. IL is the current in both source and load side because the system is series
connected

34
 Fig. 5.8: The circuit parameters of the system

Fig.5.8 shows the source, load and injected voltages and load current. The
optimum performance is satisfied from this method even if deep voltage sags occur.

Pload =VLIL cosα (5.6)

Psource = Vs IL cos β (5.7)

Pinj = Psource - Pload = IL (Vs cos β -VL cosα ) (5.8)

IL is the load current; α is the angle between V L and IL ; β is the angle between
Vs and IL .

It is observed that the injected power decreases from method 1 to method 4 but
the complexity and expenses increase. It is important to note that the overall researching
about the characteristics of load will determine the required compensation strategy with
minimum cost. The phase shift, magnitude and wave shape are some of the important
considerations for compensation strategy. For example, three-phase AC motor drives
with front-end rectifiers are very sensitive to voltage magnitude and phase unbalance.
Thyristor based power supplies (such as DC drives) need accurate zero-crossing
information, so phase shift and wave shape are important. AC motor contactors are not
as sensitive to phase shift and wave shape; however voltage magnitude and point in
wave of the initiation of the event play a key role in tripping the contactor (Middlekauff
et al., 1998).

35
 SIMULATION RESULTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents detailed simulation results of the proposed control system.
The simulated system is shown in Fig. 6.1. Simulation studies are carried out in the
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.
6.2 PROPOSED TOPOLOGY
A model of voltage dip at the point of common coupling (PCC) is illustrated in
Fig. 6.1.

Fig.6.1: Single-phase model for voltage sag at the PCC

Fig. 6.2: Inter phase ac–ac converter topology

36
 The inter phase ac–ac converter topology, as shown in Fig.6.2, has a sag of

supporter in each phase consisting of two choppers connected to the other two
phasesindependently, and it can account for phase-jump compensation

Fig.6.3: AC chopper across phase- in the phase- sag supporter

Table 6.1: AC Chopper Parameters

Parameters Values

Rated voltage and frequency 50V, 50Hz

Load 50Ω

Injection Transformer 1:1, 140V, 700VA

Switching frequency fZ 5 kHz

Input capacitance Cs 50 µF

AC Chopper
Filter inductance Lf 0.25 mH

Filter capacitance Cf 180 µF

6.3 SIMULATION RESULT ANALYSISS

To test the efficacy of the algorithm, two asymmetrical sags, and symmetrical
sag are simulated using MATLAB, and the results are shown in Figs. 6.4–6.6. As
37
discussed in the aforementioned sections, the magnitudes of the symmetrical
components (Va1, Va2 , and Va0), sag-type indicator (Ty), characteristic voltage (Vch),
reference voltage (Vref) in the affected phases, and the duty cycle of the choppers (d1
and d2) in the corresponding sag supporters are estimated for three sag types.

For single-phase sag as simulated in Fig.6.4 (a), the calculated Ty value and the
presence of the zero components (Va0) suggest that it is type Ba sag. Since phase-a is
affected, the phasesag supporter is activated. Fig.6.4 (b) and Fig.6.4(c) shows
compensated voltage, and injected voltage (via), which is accompanied by an SF. The
instant when the SF is high, the DVR is made operational. Here, the algorithm takes
1/8th of a power cycle to detect and set the SF. The duty cycles d1 and d2 of the choppers
across phase-b and phase-c, respectively, are shown in Fig. 6.4(d). It can be observed
that the scheme takes half-a-cycle to compensate sag.

Fig.6.4: Simulation diagram of Compensation of a sag type Ba

38
 Fig 6.4 (a) Phase voltage at the PCC with sag

The calculated Ty value and the presence of the zero components (Va0) suggest
that it is type Ba sag. Since phase-a is affected, the phasesag supporter is activated.

Fig 6.4 (b) Load voltage at pcc shows compensated voltage which is
accompanied by an SF

39
 Fig 6.4 (c) Injected voltages with the sag flag (SF)
Injected voltage (via), which is accompanied by an SF. The instant when the SF
is high, the DVR is made operational. Here, the algorithm takes 1/8th of a power cycle
to detect and set the SF.

Fig 6.4 (d) Duty cycle of the choppers in phase- sag supporter
The duty cycles d1 and d2 of the choppers across phase-b and phase-c,
respectively, are shown in Fig. 6.4(d). It can be observed that the scheme takes half-a-
cycle to compensate sag.

40
 Cb type sag with a characteristic voltage of 0.6 is considered. Since phases and
are affected, both phase-c and a sag supporters are activated. From the characteristic
voltage, the corresponding reference voltages are calculated. Fig.6.5(b) shows
compensated voltages at the PCC, and it can be observed that the phase- voltage is
compensated to the pre-sag condition, eliminating the 29 phase jump. Fig.6.5(c) shows
injected voltages (vic and via) with SF, which is set in 1/4th of a power cycle for the case.
Fig. 6.5(d) and Fig.6.5 (e) shows the duty cycles of the choppers in sag supporters-c
and a, respectively.

Fig.6.5: Simulation diagram of Compensation of a sag type Cb

Cb type sag with a characteristic voltage of 0.6 is considered. Since phases and
are affected, both phase-c and a sag supporters are activated.

41
 Fig.6.5 (a) Phase voltage at the PCC with sag

Fig.6.5 (b) Load voltage at the PCC.

It shows compensated voltages at the PCC, and it can be observed that the phase-
voltage is compensated to the pre-sag condition, eliminating the 29 phase jump.

42
 Fig.6.5 (c) Injected voltages with the SF

The figure shows injected voltages (vic and via) with SF, which is set in 1/4th of a power
cycle for the case.

Fig.6.5 (d) The duty cycle of voltages in phase-c Sag supporter.

43
 CONCLUSION

7.1 CONCLUSION

In this thesis, a control scheme based on the characterization of voltage sag is

proposed. It is tested on inter-phase ac–ac converter topology and it is found that the
scheme besides compensation gives insight on the limits on compensation imposed by
various sag types. Therefore, it aids in the flexible compensation by switching between
pre-sag and in-phase compensation. The scheme provides 100% compensation for type
sag, and for all other types, compensation up to 50% sag magnitude with phase jumps
ranging from 600 to 600 for inter phase ac–ac topology. The algorithm takes; at most,
half a cycle to compensate and it works in the presence of harmonics and unbalance,
since the Fourier transform is employed to extract the fundamental component.

7.2 FUTURE SCOPE

In the future, the proposed scheme can be possible to validate by real time
testing using DSP. A control scheme for storage less DVR has been proposed and the
field experiment in the case of single phase voltage sag at the pcc has been completed.
In the future,more research work in the following area can be performed.

The proposed scheme can be possible to validate by real time testing using DSP.
Therefore,the compensation by switching between presage and in phase compensation.
The scheme provides 100% compensation for type B sag. The algorithm takes almost
half a cycle to compensate.

44
 REFERENCES

[1]. R. S. Vedam and M. S. Sarma, Power Quality: VAR Compensation in Power

Systems. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC, 2009.
[2]. M. H. J. Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems. Piscataway, NJ, USA:
IEEE, 2000.
[3]. R. C. Dugan, M. F. McGranaghan, S. Santoso, and H.W. Beaty, Electrical Power
Systems Quality. New York, USA: Mc Graw-Hill, 2004.
[4]. J. G. Nielsen and F. Blaabjerg, “A detailed comparison of system topologies for
dynamic voltage restorers,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 1272–
1280, Sep./Oct. 2005.
[5]. G. Venkataramanan, B. K. Johnson, and A. Sundaram, “An AC-AC power
converter for custom power applications,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 11, no.
3, pp. 1666–1671, Jul. 1996.
[6]. S. M. Hietpas and M. Naden, “Automatic voltage regulator using an AC voltage-
voltage converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 33–38, Jan./Feb.
2000.
[7]. E. C. Aeloíza, P. N. Enjeti, L. A. Morán, O. C. M. Hernandez, and S. Kim,
“Analysis and design of a new voltage sag compensator for critical loads in
electrical power distribution systems,” IEEE Trans.Ind. Appl., vol. 39, no. 4, pp.
1143–1150, Jul./Aug. 2003.
[8]. E. Babaei, M. F. Kangarlu, and M. Sabahi, “Mitigation of voltage disturbances
using dynamic voltage restorer based on direct converters,” IEEE Trans. Power
Del., vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 2676–2683, Oct. 2010.
[9]. B. Wang and G. Venkataramanan, “Dynamic voltage restorer utilizing a matrix
converter and flywheel energy storage,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 45, no. 1,
pp. 222–231, Jan./Feb. 2009.
[10]. P. M. Garcia-Vite, F. M. David, and J.M. Ramirez, “Per-sequence vector-
switching matrix converter modules for voltage regulation,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 60, no. 12, pp. 5411–5421, Dec. 2013.
[11]. S. Subramanian and M. K. Mishra, “Inter phase AC-AC topology for voltage
sag supporter,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 514–518, Feb.
2010.

45
[12]. A. Prasai and D. M. Divan, “Zero-energy sag corrector with reduced device
count,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 24, no. 6, pp.1646–1653, Jun. 2009.
[13]. J. Suma and M. K. Mishra, “Instantaneous symmetrical component theory based
algorithm for characterization of three phase distorted and unbalanced voltage
sags,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Ind. Technol., Feb. 2013, pp. 845–850.
[14]. A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power
Devices. Norwell, MA, USA: Kluwer, 2002.
[15]. M. Bollen, “Algorithms for characterizing measured three-phase unbalanced
voltage dips,” IEEE Trans, Power Del., vol. 18, no. 3, pp.937–944, Jul. 2003.
[16]. L. D. Zhang and M. H. J. Bollen, “Characteristic of voltage dips (sags) in power
systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 15, no. 2, pp.827–832, Apr. 2000.
[17]. IEEE Recommended Practice for Emergency and Standby Power Systems for
Industrial and Commercial Applications, IEEE Standard 446-1995, Jul. 3, 1996.
[18]. D.M. Vilathgamuwa, A. A. D. R. Perera, and S. S. Choi, “Voltage sag
compensation with energy optimized dynamic voltage restorer,” IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 928–936, Jul. 2003.
[19]. A. Camacho, M. Castilla, J. Miret, J. Vasquez, and E. A. Gallo, “Flexible
voltage support control for three phase distributed generation inverters under grid
fault,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 4, pp. 1429–1440, Apr. 2013.

46