Cs Lab Manual 31.05.14

CONTROL SYSTEM AND SIMULATION LAB
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
AURORA’S SCINTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL AND RESEARCH ACADEMY
Bandlaguda, Hyderabad – 500005. Ph: 040 -244440840,65245611.
1
PREFACE
This laboratory manual is prepared by the Department of Electrical and Electronics and
Engineering for Control Systems laboratory. This lab manual can be used as instructional book
for students, staff and instructors to assist in performing and understanding the experiments. In
the manual, experiments as per syllabus are described.
Control Systems Lab consists of fifteen experiments for modeling of electrical, mechanical
systems. We can analysis the time domain of first and second order systems.
The concept of stability and development of various methods for the study of stability of control
system are present. The design of compensators re also presented, the analysis of MIMO system
can be studied
This lab also covers the industrial implementation of advanced control systems via different
computer tools such as MATLAB and Simulink.
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1 Objective and Relevance
The aim of this Control system laboratory is to provide sound knowledge in the basic concepts of
linear control theory and design of control system, to understand the methods of representation
of systems and getting their transfer function models, to provide adequate knowledge in the time
response of systems and steady state error analysis, to give basic knowledge is obtaining the
open loop and closed–loop frequency responses of systems and to understand the concept of
stability of control system and methods of stability analysis. It helps the students to study the
compensation design for a control system. This lab consist of DC,AC servomotor, synchros, DC
position control, PID controller kit with temperature control, lead lag compensator kit, PLC kit,
Stepper ,process control simulator
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2 Outcomes
1. After the completion of this course student able solve the control system problems by
using the programs through MATLAB.
2. Determination of transfer function useful to design the systems.Introducing of MATLAB
in control systems solutions
3. Evaluate the electrical characteristics of electric machines.
4. Design the electronic instruments to perform control system analysis and measurement.
5. Design some electrical and mechanical systems.
6. Compare root locus method and frequency domain design methods.
7. Analyze the characteristics of DC and AC machines.
8. Analyze the standard methods to determine accurate modeling/simulation parameters for
various general-purpose electrical machines and transformers.
4
3: PRECAUTIONS :
SAFETY – 1
 Power must be switched-OFF while making any connections.

 Do not come in contact with live supply.
 Power should always be in switch-OFF condition, EXCEPT while you are taking
readings.
 The Circuit diagram should be approved by the faculty before making connections.
 Circuit connections should be checked & approved by the faculty before switching on the
power.
 Keep your Experimental Set-up neat and tidy.
 Check the polarities of meters and supplies while making connections.
 Always connect the voltmeter after making all other connections.
 Check the Fuse and it’s ratify.
 Use right color and gauge of the fuse.
 All terminations should be firm and no exposed wire.
 Do not use joints for connection wire.
SAFETY – II
 The voltages employed in electrical lab are sufficiently high to endanger human life.
 Compulsorily wear shoes.
 Don’t use metal jewelers on hands.
 Do not wear loose dress
 Don’t switch on main power unless the faculty gives the permission
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4. CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES:
 All students must observe the Dress Code while in the laboratory.
 Sandals or open-toed shoes are NOT allowed.
 Foods, drinks and smoking are NOT allowed.
 All bags must be left at the indicated place.
 The lab timetable must be strictly followed.
 Be PUNCTUAL for your laboratory session.
 Experiment must be completed within the given time.
 Noise must be kept to a minimum.
 Workspace must be kept clean and tidy at all time.
 Handle all apparatus with care.
 All students are liable for any damage to equipment due to their own negligence.
 All equipment, apparatus, tools and components must be RETURNED to their original
place after use.
 Students are strictly PROHIBITED from taking out any items from the laboratory.
 Students are NOT allowed to work alone in the laboratory without the Lab Supervisor
 Report immediately to the Lab Supervisor if any injury occurred.
 Report immediately to the Lab Supervisor any damages to equipment.
Before leaving the lab
 Place the stools under the lab bench.

 Turn off the power to all instruments.
 Turn off the main power switch to the lab bench.
 Please check the laboratory notice board regularly for updates
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5 List of Experiments:
Part: A
1. Time Response of Second order system
2. Study of characteristics of Synchros
3. Effect of feedback on DC servo motor
4. Transfer function of DC motor
5. Effect of P, PD, PI, PID controller on a second order systems
6. Study of Lag leg compensation
7. Characteristics of magnetic amplifier
8. Root locus plot, Bode plot from MATLAB
9. State space model for classical transfer function using MATLAB Verification
10. Characteristics of AC servo motor
11. Programmable logic controller

Part: B
1. Simulation of OP – AMP based integrator and differentiator

2. Linear system analysis using MATLAB
3. Stability analysis using MATLAB
4. State space model for classical TF using MATLAB
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6 : Text and Reference Books
TEXT BOOKS :
T1 : B. C. Kuo “Automatic Control Systems” 8th edition– by 2003– John wiley and son’s.,
T2 :I. J. Nagrath and M. Gopal, “Control Systems Engineering” New Age International (P)
Limited, Publishers, 5th edition.
REFERENCE BOOKS :
R1 :Katsuhiko Ogata “Modern Control Engineering” Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd., 3rd
edition, 1998.
R2 : N.K.Sinha, “Control Systems” New Age International (P) Limited Publishers, 3rd
Edition,1998.
R3 : NISE “Control Systems Engg.” 5th Edition – John wiley
R4 : Narciso F. Macia George J. Thaler, “ Modeling & Control Of Dynamic Systems”
Thomson Publishers
R5 : “ Control systems” by A.Nagoor kani- 2nd edition
R6 : “Control systems” by U.A.Bakshi and V.U.Bakshi - first edition
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7 Syllabus analysis
S.No Name of the Experiment Unit No Text /Reference

Books
1 Time response of Second order system 3 T 2: 199,
2 Characteristics of Synchros 2 R5: 2.5
3 Programmable logic controller – Study and 2
verification of truth tables of logic gates, simple
---
Boolean expressions and application of speed control
of motor.
4 Effect of feedback on DC servo motor 1 R5:2.23
5 Transfer function of DC motor 1 T 2: 46,
6 Effect of P, PD, PI, PID Controller on a second order 3
R5:3.21
systems
7 Lag and lead compensation – Magnitude and phase 7
R5:6.53
plot
8 Transfer function of DC generator 1 T 2: 46,
9 Temperature controller using PID 1 T 2: 477,
10 Characteristics of magnetic amplifiers CBS as per
theory
11 Characteristics of AC servo motor 2 R5:2.25
12 PSPICE simulation of Op-Amp based Integrator and CBS as per
---
Differentiator circuits. theory
13 Linear system analysis (Time domain analysis, Error 3
R5:6.1
analysis) using MATLAB.
14 Stability analysis (Bode, Root Locus, Nyquist) of 4,5,6 T 2: 352,
Linear Time Invariant system using MATLAB T 2: 299 T 2: 381,
15 State space model for classical transfer function using 8

R6:14.14
MATLAB – Verification.
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8. SESSION PLAN
SL.N Week
Unit no. Activity Remarks
O no.
1 Prerequisit
1 1 Introduction to CS lab
e
2 2 1 Transfer function of DC motor JNTUH
Temperature control using PID

3 3 1 JNTUH
Transfer function of DC Generator

4 4 1 JNTUH
Effect of feedback on DC servo motor

5 JNTUH
5 2
Characteristics of AC servo motor

6 JNTUH
6 2
Study of characteristics of Synchros

7 JNTUH
7 2
Time Response of Second order system JNTUH

8 8 3
Effect of P, PD, PI,PID controller on a second order systems

9 JNTUH
9 3
Linear system analysis(Time domain analysis, Error Analysis)

10 Using JNTUH
10 3
MATLAB
Stability analysis( Bode Plot) of Linear time

11 JNTUH
11 4 invariant system Using MATLAB
Stability analysis( Root locus) of Linear time

12 11 5 invariant system Using MATLAB JNTUH
10
Stability analysis( Nyquist Plot) of Linear time
13 JNTUH
11 6 invariant system Using MATLAB
Study of Lag-lead compensation JNTUH

14 12 7
State space model for classical transfer function

15 JNTUH
12 8 using MATLAB-Verification
Programmable logic controller- study and

16 verification of truth tables of logic gates, simple JNTUH
13 --
boolean expressions.
Characteristics of Magnetic amplifier JNTUH

17 13 --
PSPICE Simulation of OP-AMP based integrator

18 JNTUH
14 -- and Differentiator
Block diagram reduction technique using

19 CBS
15 -- MATLAB
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9 Experiment write up
9.1. Introduction to control system lab
Equipments used in the lab:
1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
CRO is an instrument which is used to measure voltages that change with time and to display the
waveforms in real time mode. There is a graphical scale present on the screen which is used to
calculate the voltage or frequency value. A very important specification of a CRO is its
bandwidth which gives the maximum frequency of a signal which a CRO can measure. A simple
oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube, a vertical amplifier, a time base, a horizontal
amplifier and a power supply. Fig 12 shows the block diagram of a CRO. Cathode-ray tube is a
vacuum tube in which a beam of electrons is produced and focused onto a fluorescent screen.
The electrons’ kinetic energy is converted into light energy as they collide with the screen. It is
an essential component of television receivers, computer visual display units, and CRO. Between
the electron gun and the screen are two pairs of metal plates : (i) Horizontal Deflection Plates
and (ii) Vertical deflection plates. These are driven by Horizontal Deflection system and
Vertical deflection system respectively.
In the vertical deflection system, the vertical amplifier is driven by an external voltage (the
vertical input) that is to be measured. The amplifier has very high input impedance, typically one
megohm, so that it draws only a tiny current from the signal source. The amplifier drives the
vertical deflection plates with a voltage that is proportional to the vertical input. The gain of the
vertical amplifier can be adjusted to suit the amplitude of the input voltage. A positive input
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voltage bends the electron beam upwards, and a negative voltage bends it downwards, so that the
vertical deflection of the dot shows the value of the input.
The horizontal deflection system consists of a time base circuit which is an electronic circuit that
generates a ramp voltage (saw tooth waveform) . Refer fig. 13.
This is a voltage that changes continuously and linearly with time. When it reaches a predefined
value the ramp is reset. When a trigger event is recognized the reset is released, allowing the
ramp to increase again. The time base voltage usually drives the horizontal amplifier. Its effect is
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to sweep the electron beam at a constant speed from left to right across the screen, then quickly
return the beam to the left in time to begin the next sweep.
CRO controls from the front panel
1 Intensity This knob controls the brightness of the trace by adjusting the number of
electrons emerging from the gun
2 Focus This control is for making the trace on the screen sharper. It is connected
to the anode of the electron gun whose voltage collimates the electron beam.
3 Vertical Position & Horizontal Position Through these controls the beam can be
positioned at variable vertical or horizontal positions as desired. These knobs apply a dc voltage
to the vertical and horizontal deflection plates.
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4 V / Div. This control is used to control the voltage sensitivity. This is internally
connected to an attenuator of the vertical system. It determines the voltage required by the
vertical plates to deflect the beam vertically by one division.
5 Time / Div This determines the time taken for the spot to move horizontally across
one division of the screen when the sweep is generated by triggering process. The signal which is
fed to the vertical deflection plates provides the triggering to the waveform. Each position of the
time/ div knob is applicable for a particular frequency. This determines the horizontal sensitivity
of the observed signal.
6 Trigger Source This selects the source of the trigger to be applied to the saw tooth
waveform. There are usually three possible sources (i) Internal: This is mostly used for all
applications. The vertical signal applies the triggering signal. (ii) Line: This is generally used
when the voltage to be measured is related to the line voltage. This selects the 50Hz line voltage.
(iii) Ext. In this case an external signal is applied to trigger the saw tooth waveform./
7 Slope This determines whether the time base circuit responds to the positive or negative
slope of the triggering waveform.
8 Level This determines the amplitude level on the triggering waveform which can
start the sweep
9 AC, DC, GND: This selects the coupling mechanism for the input signal to the
CRO. In dc mode the vertical amplifier receives both ac and dc components of the input signal.
In ac mode the coupling capacitor blocks all dc components and displays only pure ac waveform.
In gnd configuration, the input signal is grounded and one gets a straight line. To measure the dc
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component of any signal (ac or dc), one has to switch from ac to dc mode and observe the
vertical shift of the waveform. The amount of vertical shift in volts gives the corresponding dc
component.
10 X-Y mode: In this mode of operation. two signals are superimposed at right angles on
each other. The saw tooth time base circuit is disconnected from the horizontal deflection plates
and the external signal which s fed to channel two is given to time base instead. Hence if two
sine waves are fed to two channels respectively then the electron beam will undergo deflection
according to right angle superposition of two sine waves. It will trace lissajous figures.
Few experiments related with CRO:
To measure voltage and frequency of an ac signal
Voltage measurement To measure the voltage of an ac waveform, connect the ac
signal from signal generator to CRO channel 1 such that a stable waveform such as that of fig 14.
is displayed. Here Vpp is the peak to peak voltage and Vm is the maximum voltage.
Suppose volts / div is at 1V scale then Vpp = 4 div x 1 V = 4V
and Vm = 2div x 1V = 2V.
The effective value is V effec = V rms= Vm X 0.7. = 1.4 V
If an ac voltmeter is connected across the signal it will give the same value i.e.1.4V.
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Frequency Measurement The distance covered by one wave in fig. 14 , gives the time period
(T) of the waveform. Suppose time / div knob is at 1 ms scale then T = 2div x 1 ms = 2 msec.
Hence frequency (F) = 1 / T = 1 / 2msec = 0.5 kHz = 500 Hz.
To measure frequency ratio and measure phase difference of 2 waveforms using
lissajous figures.
Lissajous Figures
When a particle is influenced by two simple harmonic motions which are at right angles to each
other then it traces a curve called lissajous figure. For the case of a CRO, when the time base of
the CRO is not applied to the horizontal (X) plates, any waveform can be applied across these
plates. If different sine waves are applied to the X and Y plates, a stationary pattern is traced by
the electron beam. This pattern depends on the ratio of the frequencies of the two waves ( i.e. 1:
1, 1:2, 1:3 or 1:4 etc.) and the phase difference between the two waves. The frequency ratio of
1:1 gives a circular pattern if the signals (i) have the same amplitudes and (ii) are 90 out of
phase. A phase difference of 45o produces an ellipse, and zero phase difference produces a
straight line inclined at an angle determined by the magnitudes of the two signals.
Measurement of Frequency Ratio
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For measurement of frequency ratio refer to circuit of fig. 15 , where two sine waves are applied
to the two channels and Oscilloscope is kept in X-Y mode
The frequency ratio is determined by the number of loops of the pattern touching a vertical line
at the edge of the pattern and the number of loops touching a horizontal line at the edge of the
pattern. The reason for this is that an integral number of sine waves on the horizontal deflection
plates are completed in the same time that an integral number of sine waves are completed on the
vertical plates. If Tv and Th are the time periods of vertical and horizontal input sine waves
respectively then
TV Number of loops touching vertical line fH 2

  
TH Number of loops touching horizontal line fV 1
where fH and fV are the frequencies of horizontal and vertical signals respectively. In fig. 16 ,
lissajous figures for various frequency ratios are drawn.
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Measurement of Phase Difference
For measurement of Phase difference between 2 waves, connect the circuit as in fig. 17 .and
operate the CRO in X-Y mode.
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The phase difference is determined by measuring ratio of the maximum Y intercept to the
intercept made on Y axis. Refer Fig 18, where Y1 is the maximum Y intercept and Y2 is the
intercept on Y axis. Hence if Phase difference between the 2 waves is Φ, then
Sin Φ = Y2 / Y1. Therefore Φ = Sin-1 Y2 / Y1
Figure 19 illustrates some more patterns of lissajous figures for various values of phase
differences.
In the vertical deflection system, the vertical amplifier is driven by an external voltage (the
vertical input) that is to be measured. The amplifier has very high input impedance, typically one
megohm, so that it draws only a tiny current from the signal source. The amplifier drives the
vertical deflection plates with a voltage that is proportional to the vertical input. The gain of the
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vertical amplifier can be adjusted to suit the amplitude of the input voltage. A positive input
voltage bends the electron beam upwards, and a negative voltage bends it downwards, so that the
vertical deflection of the dot shows the value of the input.
Regulated Power Supply

Regulated power supply is an electronic circuit that is designed to provide a constant dc voltage
of predetermined value across load terminals irrespective of ac mains fluctuations or load
variations.
A regulated power supply essentially consists of an ordinary power supply and a voltage
regulating device, as illustrated in the figure. The output from an ordinary power supply is fed to
the voltage regulating device that provides the final output. The output voltage remains constant
irrespective of variations in the ac input voltage or variations in output (or load) current.
Figure given below shows the complete circuit of a regulated power supply with a transistor
series regulator as a regulating device. The ac voltage, typically 230 Vrms is connected to a
transformer which transforms that ac voltage to the level for the desired dc output. A bridge
rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a ∏ (or C-L-C)
filter to produce a dc voltage. The resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage
variation. A regulating circuit use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not only has much
less ripple voltage but also remains constant even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat or the
load connected to the output dc voltage changes. The regulated dc supply is available across a
voltage divider.
Regulated Power Supply Circuit

Often more than one dc voltage is required for the operation of electronic circuits. A single
power supply can provide as many as voltages as are required by using a voltage (or potential)
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divider, as illustrated in the figure. As illustrated in the figure, a potential divider is a single
tapped resistor connected across the output terminals of the supply. The tapped resistor may
consist of two or three resistors connected in series across the supply. In fact, bleeder resistor
may also be employed as a potential divider.
Power Supply Characteristics
There are various factors that determine the quality of the power supply like the load voltage,
load current, voltage regulation, source regulation, output impedance, ripple rejection, and so on.
Some of the characteristics are briefly explained below:
1. Load Regulation – The load regulation or load effect is the change in regulated output
voltage when the load current changes from minimum to maximum value.
Load regulation = Vno-load – Vfull-load
Vno-load – Load Voltage at no load
Vfull-load – Load voltage at full load.
From the above equation we can understand that when Vno-load occurs the load resistance is
infinite, that is, the out terminals are open circuited. Vfull-load occurs when the load resistance is
of the minimum value where voltage regulation is lost.
% Load Regulation = [(Vno-load - Vfull-load)/Vfull-load] * 100
2. Minimum Load Resistance – The load resistance at which a power supply delivers its full-
load rated current at rated voltage is referred to as minimum load resistance.
Minimum Load Resistance = Vfull-load/Ifull-load
The value of Ifull-load, full load current should never increase than that mentioned in the data
sheet of the power supply.
3. Source/Line Regulation – In the block diagram, the input line voltage has a nominal value of
230 Volts but in practice, here are considerable variations in ac supply mains voltage. Since this
ac supply mains voltage is the input to the ordinary power supply, the filtered output of the
bridge rectifier is almost directly proportional to the ac mains voltage.
The source regulation is defined as the change in regulated output voltage for a specified rage of
lie voltage.
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4. Output Impedance – A regulated power supply is a very stiff dc voltage source. This means
that the output resistance is very small. Even though the external load resistance is varied, almost
no change is seen in the load voltage. An ideal voltage source has an output impedance of zero.
5. Ripple Rejection – Voltage regulators stabilize the output voltage against variations in input
voltage. Ripple is equivalent to a periodic variation in the input voltage. Thus,a voltage regulator
attenuates the ripple that comes in with the unregulated input voltage. Since a voltage regulator
uses negative feedback, the distortion is reduced by the same factor as the gain.
MULTIMETER
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is

an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current,
andresistance. Analog multimeters use a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale
calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM,
DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length
proportional to the quantity being measured. Digital multimeters are now far more common than
analog ones, but analog multimeters are still preferable in some cases, for example when
monitoring a rapidly-varying value.
A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or
a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such
as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring
systems.
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9.2. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF DC MOTOR
PREAMBLE:
The transfer function of the motor was obtained by measuring the various physical parameters of
the motor and applying them to the known mathematical model. The methods to be used in this
lab, called step– and frequency– response methods, are indirect and can be used even if a good
mathematical model of the plant is unavailable.
Aim:
To derive the transfer function of the given DC Servomotor and experimentally determine
the transfer function parameters
EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
Sl no Apparatus Name Specifications
1 Voltage- 220V
Separately excited Current-19 A

DC motor Speed-1500 RPM
H.P-5 hp
2 Rectifier unit 220V/100A
3 3 points stator
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Sl no Apparatus Name Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter (0-300) V MC 1
2 Ammeter (0-20) A MC 1
3 Rheostat (360 /1.2) ohms Wire wound

3
/A
25
PHOTOS OF EQUIPMENTS AND COMPONENTS:
1) Voltmeter:
2) Ammeter:
3) Rheostat:
26
Separately excited DC motor:
27
4) Rectifier unit:
5) 3 points stator:
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Circuit diagram for calculating inertia constant J
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If (costant)
Ra La
ea TM
ia
- θ
Circuit diagram for find armature resistance Ra
Circuit diagram for find Impedance Za
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THEORY:
Armature control method is used when speed below the no load speed are required. As the
supplied voltage is normally constant, the voltage across the armature is varied by inserting a
variable rheostat in series with the armature circuit as shown. As controlled resistance is
increased, potential difference across the armature is decreased. For load of constant speed
approximately proportional to the potential difference across the armature.
Derivation of transfer function of armature controlled DC servo motor:
Consider the armature controlled d.c. servo motor shown in fig. below
In this system,
Ra = resistance of armature (Ω).
La = Inductance of the Armature Winding (H).
ia= = Armature Current(A).
if = Field Current (A).
ea = Applied Armature Voltage(V).
eb = Back EMF (volts).
TM = torque developed by armature (Nm).
θ = angular displacement of motor shaft (rad).
J = equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft
(Kg-m2)
fo = equivalent viscous friction coefficient of motor and load referred to motor
Shaft (N m/( rad/s))
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If (costant)
Ra La
ea TM
ia
- θ
In servo applications, the d.c motors are generally used in the linear range of the magnetization
curve. Therefore, the air gap flux Φ is proportional to field current
Φ= Kfif
where, Kf, is a constant.
The torque TM developed by the motor is proportional to the product of the armature
current and air gap flux,
TM = K1Kf if ia
where, K1, is a constant.
In the armature controlled d.c motor, the field current is kept constant, so that TM =
kTia
where, KT, is motor torque constant.
The motor back emf being proportional to speed is given as
dθ
eb  K b
dt
where, Kb, is the back emf constant.
The differential equation of the armature circuit is
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di a
La  R a i a  eb  ea
dt
The torque equation :
d 2θ dθ
J 2
 f0  TM  K T i a
dt dt
Taking the Laplace transform and assuming zero initial conditions, we get
Eb(s) = Kb s θ(s)
(Las+Ra) Ia(s) = Ea(s) - Eb(s)
(Js2+fos) θ(s) = TM(s) = KTIa(s)
The transfer function of the system is obtained as

θ(s) KT
G(s)  
E a (s) s[(R a  sL a )(Js  f o )  K T K b ]
Assumptions:
 The field current is constant.

 The flux which is proportional to the field current is also constant.
 The torque generated is proportional to the product of flux and the armature current
Tm  ΦIa
T  Ia
Tm = KtIa
Where Kt is the motor torque constant
 Back EMF of the motor is proportional to the speed and the flux Eb  Φ.
Transfer function
θ(s) KT
G(s)  
E a (s) s[(R a  sL a )(Js  f o )  K T K b ]
Where:
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KT – Torque constant calculated from graph (T Vs Ia)
Ra – Armature Resistance in 
La – Inductance of Armature in H
fo – Viscous friction coefficient In N-M / rad /sec
J – Equivalent moment of inertia of motor and load referred to motor shaft (Kg-m2)
Kb – Is the back EMF constant.
Inertia constant: J
2
V * I  60  t t
J  av av   1 2 In Kg/m2
N av * N  2  t1  t2
Where:
T1 – Time for fall of speed from N1 to N2 in no load condition
T2 – Time for fall of speed from N1 to N2 in load condition
V1  V2 I1  I 2
Vav  , I av 
2 2
N1  N 2
N av  N  N1  N2
2
Frictional coefficient of motor and load
 2  N N
2 2 2
fo    * J * 1 2 2 In N-M / rad /sec
 60  
Where:
2N av

60
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Back EMF constant Kb
V  I a Ra
Kb 
2N
60
Where:
V- Applied voltage in volts
Ia – Armature current in A
Ra – Armature Resistance in 
N – Rated speed in RPM
Model graph Torque Vs Ia
T in
N-M
T
T KT 
I a
Ia
T
Ia in
Amps
PROCEDURE:
1) To find inertia constant [J]
 Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

 The DPST switch is switched ON. It is in the initial position at the time of starting.
 After observing the precautions, switch on the DPST.
 Adjust the field side rheostat and the armature side rheostat and allow the motor to run at
rated speed N1.
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 Open the DPST and observe the speed of the motor note the time taken for the speed to
fall down to any three values of the speed N2.
 Adjust the rheostat to initial position and switch of the DPST.
 Open the DPST and bring 2-2 position and immediately note down the reading
 Repeat the steps 2, 3, 4.
 Observe that the speed falls rapidly for the same values of speed noted in steps note down
the time taken, voltage and current.
 Switch off the dc supply.
2
V * I  60  t t
 Inertia Constant is calculated using formula J  av av   1 2
N av * N  2  t1  t2
2) To Find Torque Constant [KT]
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.

2. The DPST is switched on.
3. Adjust the armature side rheostat and keep in fixed position so that the value of Ia is
maintained constant through the experiment.
4. Note down If, Va, Ia in table.
5. Adjust the field rheostat and note down the Va, Ia, If and Speed.
6. Graph is drawn between the torque and If.
KT = T/If
3) To fined Back EMF constant [Kb]
 The connections are given as per the circuit diagram

 The D.C supply is given by closing the DPST switch
 Run the motor at its rated speed by adjusting armature rheostat
 At rated speed the readings of applied voltage and armature current were noted down
V  I a Ra
 Back MEF constant is calculated using the formula K b 
2N
60
4) To find armature resistance [Ra]
 Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

 The resistive should be in off position at the time of starting.
 Adjust the load, for each values of load, note down the ammeter, voltmeter readings.
 Armature resistance is calculated by using the formula
5) To find field impedance [Zf]
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. Vary the auto transformer and note down the corresponding ammeter and voltmeter
readings.
36
3. Calculate the value of Zf = Vf /If  and find the mean of Zf.
OBSERVATION & TABULAR COLUMN
Tabulation to find Torque constant [J]
Spring balance reading Torque T = 9.81*

Armature Field
Sl no current Ia current If S1 in S2 in S1~ S2
S1 ~ S 2 R  t  in
 2
in Amps in Amps Kg Kg in Kg NM
Tabulation to find Back EMF constant [Kb]
Back EMF
Armature Armature Constant
Voltage Va in current Ia in Speed in RPM V  I a Ra
Kb 
Volts Amps 2N
60
Tabulation to find Armature Resistance [Ra]
Armature Armature Armature

Voltage Va in current Ia in resistance Ra
Volts Amps = V * I in Ω
37
Tabulation to Find Armature Resistance [Za]
Armature Armature Armature

Voltage Va in Current Ia in Impedance Za
Volts Amps = V / I in Ω
MODEL GRAPH
Model graph Torque Vs Ia
T in
N-M
T
T KT 
I a
Ia
T
Ia in
Amps
RESULT:
APPLICATIONS:
The separately excited motor has fairly constant speed as well as medium starting torque. It has
the following applications:
1) blowers and fans,

2) lathe machines,
3) centrifugal and reciprocating pumps,
4) machine tools,
38
5) milling machines and
6) drilling machines.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) Find the T.F of DC motor

2) Find the back EMF and constant of DC motor
3) Find the gain of DC motor
4) Draw the block diagram (transfer function )for DC motor
5) Find the Frictional coefficient of motor
Viva questions:
1) What is T.F of DC motor

2) What is back EMF and constant of DC motor
3) What is gain of DC motor
4) What is principal of DC motor
5) What is Frictional coefficient of motor
39
9.3 TEMPERATURE CONTROL USING PID
PREAMBLE:
PID controllers are used in most automatic process control applications in industry. They can
regulate flow, temperature, pressure, level, and many other industrial process variables. This
Application Note reviews the design of PID controllers and explains the P, I, and D control
modes used in them.
AIM:- To study performance of PID controller with model as temperature control
system.
Sl no Apparatus Name Specifications Quantity
1 PID control kit Max 50 degrees 1
1 stop watch 1
1) Timer:
40
2) PID kit:
THEORY: -
Open-loop Control
At the simplest level a control system can process an input condition to produce a specified
output. This is the simplest acceptable level of control. It is also the most common form of
control system, used widely in domestic and industrial systems because it is cheap to install and
simple to operate. In open-loop control the input action causes a resulting output. Domestic
lighting systems usually have open-loop control. The input is the action of pressing the light
switch and the output is light from the filament of the bulb.
41
A system diagram for the light is shown below.
light lamp glass

Action light
switch filament bulb
This is called an open-loop control system diagram. Here, it describes a manual open-loop
control system.
Another good example of this type of control is a hairdryer.
hairdryer
In the hairdryer the heating element and fan motor are switched on when the appropriate
switches are held down. This is shown on the sub-systems diagram below.
Switch on
Cold air
on/off control
Electrical
energy Heater only onmotor
sub-system when fan Sound energy
switched on
heat control heating

Set Hot air
temperature sub-system
level element
Here the input signal from the
42
on/off and temperature switch is processed to produce the output. The output air is not monitored
or adjusted in any way and it is just blown out at whatever temperature the heater warms it to.
An open-loop control system is the simplest and cheapest form of control. However, although
open-loop control has many uses, its basic weakness lies in its inability to adjust the output to
suit the requirements.
Closed-loop Control
This is the most sophisticated form of control. In closed-loop control the value of the output is
constantly monitored as the system operates and this value is compared with the set (or
reference) value. If there is any difference between the actual value and the set value (an error),
then the input to the system is varied in order to reduce the output error to zero. Closed-loop
control is a more accurate system of control and at the same time more expensive. It employs
self-monitoring, where a sensor is used to read the condition being controlled and adjust the
output if necessary. This monitoring takes place through a feedback loop. Here an input sensor
checks the output and adjusts it when it does not meet the requirements. Closed-loop control
systems are therefore capable of making decisions and adjusting their performance to suit
changing output conditions. An example is a thermostatically controlled fan heater.
The sub-systems diagram for the heater is shown below.
Set temperature
thermostat
Switch on Hot air at
required
on/off temperature
Electrical
control motor fan heater
energy
In this example a thermostat monitors the output temperature and switches the heater on when it
is too cold and off when the temperature is at the required or set level. All closed-loop control
43
systems include a sensing sub-system that feedbacks information to the control sub-system. The
control sub-system will process this feedback signal and make a ‘decision’ on whether to alter
the output. Note that in closed loop systems the feedback loop is not necessarily a physical link
between the sensor and the output. Instead the sensor monitors the environment that the output is
controlling. In the system diagram you should note that the diagram now forms a continuous
loop that can be followed round repeatedly as the system operates. This is why the system is
called closed-loop and the comparison with open-loop becomes much clearer. The line
representing data flow from the output back to the input is called the feedback loop and the
signal from the output back to the control sub-system is sometimes called the feedback signal. A
closed-loop system can always be identified by the presence of a feedback loop. An open-loop
system never has a feedback loop. The set up has built in signal source as reference, DVM as
temperature indicator; PID controller and DC supply to operate the system. The set has three
controls, P for proportional gain, I for integrated gain, and D for derivative gain. A separate oven
with fan is provided to raise the temperature.
Negative and Positive Feedback
The purpose of closed-loop control is to ensure that the output is maintained at, or as closely as
possible to, the desired level. In the case of a central heating system, a graph of the temperature
in a room might appear as below:
ACTUAL TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE
SET TEMPERATURE
TIME
As can be seen from the graph, the control system is constantly trying to pull the temperature of
the room back towards the set temperature level by reducing the error. This type of control uses
negative feedback to reduce the error. Reinforcing or increasing the error can create the opposite
effect, for example in a public address system when the microphone is held too close to the
speakers. A sound is picked up by the microphone, amplified and then output through the
speaker. The amplified sound is then picked up, re-amplified and so on. The net result is a high-
pitched sound caused by the feedback and this can be represented by the graph below:
44
ACTUAL SOUND
SOUND SIGNAL
SIGNAL
REQUIRED SOUND
SIGNAL
TIME
This is an example of positive feedback where the error is increased. Although positive feedback
does have some useful applications, negative feedback is far more widely used in control
systems.
PROCEDURE:-
The experiment is completed in four parts.
45
1. TO OBSERVE PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS: - Connect the oven and switch on the
power. Select temperature switch to oven and note the temperature. Now select the temperature
switch to S.P. adjust temperature to 20*C. again select temperature switch to oven, switch on the
heater and start the stop watch. Note the temperature at intervals of 5, 10,20,30,40 seconds till
the temperature is stable. Plot the curve between temperature and time.
2. TO OBSERVE SIGNAL CONDITIONAL CHARACTERISTICS:- Connect the Circuit as

before and set the temp. about 10* C. Connect the DVM across ground 0And signal conditional
socket. Select temp. switch to oven and note the temp. and voltage at error detector point.
Switch on heater and note error detector negative side input voltage.
3 P. CONTROL:-Connect the set as before and set temp. to 60*C and P control Kp To 10.
switch on the heater and note temp. at 10 sec. interval. Switch off the heater and allow it to cool
with the help of fan. Now adjust Kp to 16. Switch on the heater and repeat the experiment. Plot
graph between temp. and time.
4 PI CONTROL:- Set temp. to 60* C . Select oven temp. at display reading. Switch On the
heater and stop watch. Note the temp. at 10 sec. interval. Plot graph between time and temp. 5
PID CONTROL:- Set temp. at 60* C select ovan temp. at display reading. Switch on heater and
stop watch. Note temp. at 10 sec. interval . plot response curve from results obtained from the
experiment. Find out set temp. percentage from graph as: T( set) – T(ovan) / T(set) * 100.
OBSERVATIONS AND TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl.no Time Temperature
46
RESULTS:
APPLICATIONS:
1) Used in iron box

2) Used Hair drier
3) Used in micro oven
4) Electrical heaters
5) Temperature controlled fans
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) Design a temperature controlled system with open loop system

2) Design a temperature controlled system with closed loop system
3) Design a controlled circuit for temperature control of fan
4) Design a controlled circuit for temperature control of iron box
5) Explain a closed loop system with a suitable example
Viva questions:
1) What is open loop system

2) What is closed loop system
3) What are the applications of open loop system
4) What are the applications of closed loop system
5) What are the different between closed loop and open loop system
47
9.4 Transfer function of DC Generator
PREAMBLE:
AIM: To determine the transfer function of separately excited dc generator.
1 Voltage- 220V
Separately excited Current-19 A

1
DC Generator Speed-1500 RPM
H.P-5 hp
2 Rectifier unit 220V/100A 1
3 3 points stator 1
1 Voltmeter (0-300) V MC 1
3 Rheostat (360 /1.2) ohms Wire wound

3
/A
48
1) Voltmeter:
2) Ammeter:
3) Rheostat:
49
4) Rectifier unit:
5) 3 points stator:
50
6) DC GENERATOR
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
51
THEORY:
Generator components
A DC generator consist of the following components
Rotor:
In its simplest form, the rotor consists of a single loop of wire made to rotate within a magnetic
field. In practice, the rotor usually consists of several coils of wire wound on an armature.
Armature:
The armature is a cylinder of laminated iron mounted on an axle. The axle is carried in bearings
mounted in the external structure of the generator. Torque is applied to the axle to make the rotor
spin.
Coil:
52
Each coil usually consists of many turns of copper wire wound on the armature. The two ends of
each coil are connected either to two slip rings (AC) or two opposite bars of a split-ring
commutator (DC).
Stator:
The stator is the fixed part of the generator that supplies the magnetic field in which the coils
rotate. It may consist of two permanent magnets with opposite poles facing and shaped to fit
around the rotor. Alternatively, the magnetic field may be provided by two electromagnets.
Field electromagnets:
Each electromagnet consists of a coil of many turns of copper wire wound on a soft iron core.
The electromagnets are wound, mounted and shaped in such a way that opposite poles face each
other and wrap around the rotor.
Brushes:
The brushes are carbon blocks that maintain contact with the ends of the coils via the slip rings
(AC) or the split-ring commutator (DC), and conduct electric current from the coils to the
external circuit.
53
How DC Generators Work:
The commutator rotates with the loop of wire just as the slip rings do with the rotor of an AC
generator. Each half of the commutator ring is called a commutator segment and is insulated
from the other half. Each end of the rotating loop of wire is connected to a commutator segment.
Two carbon brushes connected to the outside circuit rest against the rotating commutator. One
brush conducts the current out of the generator, and the other brush feeds it in. The commutator
is designed so that, no matter how the current in the loop alternates, the commutator segment
containing the outward-going current is always against the "out" brush at the proper time. The
armature in a large DC generator has many coils of wire and commutator segments. Because of
the commutator, engineers have found it necessary to have the armature serve as the rotor(the
54
rotating part of an apparatus) and the field structure as the stator (a stationary portion enclosing
rotating parts). Which is the inverse of an AC Generator.
Types of DC Generators:
In some DC generators, the direct current needed for the electromagnets that make up the field
structure comes from an outside source, just as it does in most AC generators. These DC
generators are called separately excited generators. Many other DC generators use part of the
direct current they produce to operate their own electromagnets. These generators are called self-
excited generators. A self-excited DC generator depends on residual magnetism--that is, a small
55
amount of magnetism remains in the electromagnets after the generator is shut off. Without this
residual magnetism, it would be impossible to start a self-excited generator once it had stopped.
The direct current needed for a self-excited generator's electromagnets can be drawn from its
armature by means of three different connections: Shunt, Series and Compound, a combination
of shunt and series connections.
The type of generator used for a certain task depends on the amount of voltage control required.
For example, a DC generator used to charge a battery needs only simple voltage control. It might
be a shunt generator.
A DC generator that supplies electricity for a passenger elevator needs more complicated voltage
control. It would be a separately excited generator.
Uses of DC Generators:
Many DC generators are driven by AC motors in combinations called motor-generator sets. This
is one way of changing alternating current to direct current. Factories that do electroplating and
those that produce aluminum, chlorine, and some other industrial materials need large amounts
of direct current and use DC generators. So do locomotives and ships driven by diesel-electric
motors. Because commutators are complex and costly, many DC generators are being replaced
by AC generators combined with electronic rectifiers. Rectifiers are devices that let current flow
56
in one direction only. They permit use of simpler, more rugged AC generators, even when DC is
required.
Transfer Function:
The transfer function for DC generator is defined as ratio of Laplace Transform
Of output V1(t) to Laplace Transform of Input Vf(t).
Transfer function = V1(t) / Vf(t)
The KVL to field circuit is

Vf(t) = If(t)Rf + Lf (dIf(t) /dt) ………………… 1
The armature induced emf Ea(t) is

Ea(t)  If(t)
= Kf If(t) ………………… 2
where Kf is proportionality constant
The KVL to armature circuit is given by
Ea(t) = Ia(t) (Ra +RL) +La (dIa /dt) ………………… 3
The load voltage
V1(t) = Ia(t) RL ………………… 4
Ia(t) = IL(t)
Taking Laplace transform for equations 1,2,3 & 4 we get

Vf(s) = If(s) Rf + sLf If(s) ………………… 5
Ea(s) = Kf If(s) ………………… 6
Ea(s) = Ia(s) (Ra +RL) + sLa Ia(s) ………………… 7
V1(s) = Ia(s) RL ………………… 8
57
From the above equations we get
Ea(s) = Kf Vf(s) / (Rf + sLf ) ………………… 9
From 7 & 9
Kf Vf(s) / (Rf + sLf ) = Ia(s) (Ra +RL) + sLa Ia(s) ………………… 10
From equation 10
Ia(s) = {Kf Vf(s) / (Rf + sLf ) [(Ra +RL) + sLa ]} ………………… 11
V1(s) = {Kf Vf(s) R1 / (Rf + sLf ) [(Ra +RL) + sLa ]}
V1(s) / Vf(s) = {Kf R1 / (Rf + sLf ) [(Ra +RL) + sLa ]}
G(s) = V1(s) / Vf(s) = {Kf R1 / (Rf + sLf ) [(Ra +RL) + sLa ………………… 12
G(s) = V1(s) / Vf(s) = { (Kf RL / Lf La ) / (s + Rf / Lf) (s + (Ra +RL) /La )}
Where Lf / Rf = field time constant, La / Ra = armature time constant
La / (Ra +RL) = total time constant
The above equation is known as the load transfer function of separately excited D.C generator.
CALCULATION:
1. The open circuit characteristic is drawn to scale as shown in model graph.

2. A tangent is drawn to the linear portion of this OCC.
3. The slope of tangent is found using the relation Kf = Ea / If
4. The inductance and resistance of the field winding are calculated as follows:
W1=If2Rf
Rf =W1 / If2
Zf=Vf / If
58
Xf = (Zf2 – Rf2)1/2
Lf = Xf / 2пf
5. The inductance of the armature winding is calculated using the equation

W2=Ia2Ra
Ra =W2 / Ia2
Za=Va / Ia
Xa = (Za2 – Ra2)1/2
La = Xa / 2пf
6. The transfer function of the given separately excited D.C shunt generator is then evaluated by
substituting the values Kf, Rf, Lf, Ra & La in the standard equations
𝑉1 (𝑠) 𝐾𝑓 𝑅𝐿 /𝐿𝑓 𝐿𝑎
𝐺(𝑠)𝐿 = =
𝑉𝑓 (𝑠) 𝑅𝑓 𝑅 +𝑅
(𝑠 + 𝐿 ) (𝑠 + 𝑎 𝐿 𝐿 )
𝑓 𝑎
𝐾𝑓 /𝐿𝑓
𝐺(𝑠)𝑁𝐿 = 𝑅𝑓
For no Load
(𝑠+ )
𝐿𝑓
59
PROCEDURE: (To Find K)
1. The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram in the shown figure 4.1.
2. Keeping the motor field rheostat in its minimum position, generator field rheostat in
maximum position and the starter in its OFF position, the main supply is switched ON to the
circuit.
3. The motor is started using the 3-point starter by slowly and carefully moving the starter
handle from its OFF to ON position.
4. The motor is brought to its rated speed by adjusting its rheostat and checked with the help of
a tachometer.
5. With the SPST switch open, the residual voltage is noted.
6. Now the SPST switch is closed and the generator field rheostat is gradually decreased in
steps and at each step the field current (If) and the corresponding induced EMF (Eg) are
recorded in the tabular column. This procedure is continued until the generator voltage
reaches 120% of its rated value.
7. After the experiment is completed the various rheostats are brought back to their original
position in sequence and then main supply is switched OFF.
Procedure: (To Find Ra & La)
1. The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in figure 4.2.
2. Keeping autotransformer in minimum position, Main is switched ON.
3. Slowly adjust the variac and apply a small voltage (say 20V) to the armature winding.
4. Note down voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings.
5. Bring the variac to minimum position and switch OFF the main supply.
Procedure: (To Find Rf & Lf)
1. The circuit connections are made as per the circuit diagram shown in figure 4.3.
2. Keeping autotransformer in minimum position, Main is switched ON.
3. Slowly adjust the variac and apply a small voltage (say 60V) to the field winding.
4. Note down voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings.
60
5. Bring the variac to minimum position and switch OFF the main supply.
TABULAR COLUMN:
Tabulation 1: OCC test
S.NO If (A) Eg (V)
Tabulation 2: To find Rf and Lf
Sl.No. W1 If Vf
Tabulation 3: To find Ra and La
Sl.No. W2 Ia Va
Model Graph
61
RESULT:
Thus the Transfer Function of Separately Excited D.C Shunt Generator is determined &
is given by
G(s)NL =
G(s)L =
APPLICATIONS:
1) Many DC generators are driven by AC motors in combinations called motor-generator
sets. This is one way of changing alternating current to direct current.
2) Factories that do electroplating and those that produce aluminum, chlorine, and some
other industrial materials need large amounts of direct current and use DC generators.
3) Locomotives and ships driven by diesel-electric motors.
4) Rectifiers are devices that let current flow in one direction only. They permit use of
simpler, more rugged AC generators, even when DC is required. .
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) Find the T.F of DC generator

2) Find the back EMF and constant of DC generator
3) Find the gain of DC generator
4) Draw the block diagram (transfer function )for DC generator
62
5) Find the Frictional coefficient of generator
Viva questions:
1) What is T.F of DC generator

2) What is back EMF and constant of DC generator
3) What is gain of DC generator
4) What is principal of DC generator
5) What is Frictional coefficient of generator
6.5 Effect of feedback on DC servo motor
Preamble:
AIM : To Study the effect feed back on D C Servomotor.
1 D.C servomotor
1
kit
1 Patch cards Required
2 Multimeter
1) Multimeter:
63
64
D.C servomotor kit:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
DC SERVO MOTOR CONTROL SYSTEM
THEORY:
What is a servo? This is not easily defined nor self-explanatory since a servomechanism, or servo
drive, does not apply to any particular device. It is a term which applies to a function or a task.
The function, or task, of a servo can be described as follows. A command signal which is issued
65
from the user's interface panel comes into the servo's "positioning controller". The positioning
controller is the device which stores information about various jobs or tasks. It has been
programmed to activate the motor/load, i.e. change speed/position. The signal then passes into
the servo control or "amplifier" section. The servo control takes this low power level signal and
increases, or amplifies, the power up to appropriate levels to actually result in movement of the
servo motor/load. These low power level signals must be amplified: Higher voltage levels are
needed to rotate the servo motor at appropriate higher speeds and higher current levels are
required to provide torque to move heavier loads. This power is supplied to the servo control
(amplifier) from the "power supply" which simply converts AC power into the required DC
level. It also supplies any low level voltage required for operation of integrated circuits.
As power is applied onto the servo motor, the load begins to move . . . speed and position
changes. As the load moves, so does some other "device" move. This other "device" is either a
tachometer, resolver or encoder (providing a signal which is "sent back" to the controller). This
"feedback" signal is informing the positioning controller whether the motor is doing the proper
job. The positioning controller looks at this feedback signal and determines if the load is being
moved properly by the servo motor; and, if not, then the controller makes appropriate
corrections. For example, assume the command signal was to drive the load at 1000 rpm. For
some reason it is actually rotating at 900 rpm. The feedback signal will inform the controller that
the speed is 900 rpm. The controller then compares the command signal (desired speed) of 1000
rpm and the feedback signal (actual speed) of 900 rpm and notes an error. The controller then
outputs a signal to apply more voltage onto the servo motor to increase speed until the feedback
signal equals the command signal, i.e. there is no error. Therefore, a servo involves several
devices. It is a system of devices for controlling some item (load). The item (load) which is
controlled (regulated) can be controlled in any manner, i.e. position, direction, speed. The speed
or position is controlled in relation to a reference (command signal), as long as the proper
feedback device (error detection device) is used. The feedback and command signals are
compared, and the corrections made. Thus the definition of a servo that it consists of several
devices which control or regulate speed/position of a load.
66
Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small, as you can see by the picture
above, have built in control circuitry, and are extremely powerful for thier size. A standard servo
such as the Futaba S-148 has 42 oz/inches of torque, which is pretty strong for its size. It also
draws power proportional to the mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo, therefore, doesn't
consume much energy. The guts of a servo motor are shown in the picture below. You can see
the control circuitry, the motor, a set of gears, and the case. You can also see the 3 wires that
connect to the outside world. One is for power (+5volts), ground, and the white wire is the
control wire.
PROCEDURE :
1. Switch on the main power supply to the kit without the connecting the feedback
path.
2. Adjust it to Zero position by using Zero adjustment knob.
3. Varying the input potentiometer (P1) & Tabulate the angular displacement (P5) of
Servo motor
4. Note the observation in tabular form
5. Switch off the power supply now connect the feed back path.
6. Switch on the power supply and adjust the gain knob to certain value.
Servo motor
8. Repeat the procedure for 2 or 3 values of gain. Plot the graph between input and
output angular displacement potent
9. Now tabulated the comments observed before and after feed back.
67
10. Switch on the main power supply to the kit without the connecting the feedback
path.
11. Adjust it to Zero position by using Zero adjustment knob.
Servo motor
13. Note the observation in tabular form
14. Switch off the power supply now connect the feed back path.
15. Switch on the power supply and adjust the gain knob to certain value.
Servo motor.
17. Repeat the procedure for 2 or 3 values of gain. Plot the graph between input and
output angular displacement potent
18. Now tabulated the comments observed before and after feed back.
TABULAR COLUMN:
With feedback Gain P1 = Centre position
Input angular Output angular Comment

displacement displacement
S. No (decrees) (decrees)
With feedback Gain P1 = Maximum position
68
Input angular Output angular
displacement displacement Comment
S. No (decrees) (decrees)
GRAPHS :
RESULT :
69
The feedback characteristics are drawn & calculated by dc servomotor.
APPLICATIONS:
1) It is used in robots
2) Door opening
3) Wood working
4) Painting machines
5) Metal cutting
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) Find the T.F of DC servomotor

2) Find the speed control of DC servomotor
3) Find the time constant DC servo motor
4) Draw the characteristics between rotor and stator angle with feed back
5) Draw the characteristics between rotor and stator angle without feed back
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a servomotor?
2. What are the applications of servomotor?
3. How do you load the D.C Servomotor?
4. Why a servomotor should not be switched on load?
5. What are the elements used as feedback
6. What are the general input and o/p parameters of D.C. servomotor
7. What is the element used as error detector in the given circuit.
70
6.6 Characteristics of AC servo motor
PREAMBLE:
AIM: To determine the speed torque characteristics of AC Servomotor
1 AC servo motor
1
kit
1 Patch cards ---- --- Required
2 Multimeter ---- --- 1
4 Voltmeter (0–300) V MC 1
1) Multimeter:
2) Ac servo motor
71
3) Ac servo motor kit:
4) Voltmeter:
72
5) Ammeter:
THEORY:
An AC servo motor is basically a two phase induction motor with some special design features.
The stator consists of two pole pairs (A-B and C-D) mounted on the inner periphery of the stator,
such that their axes are at an angle of 90o in space. Each pole pair carries a winding, one winding
is called reference winding and other is called a control winding. The exciting current in the
winding should have a phase displacement of 90o. The supply used to drive the motor is single
phase and so a phase advancing capacitor is connected to one of the phase to produce a phase
difference of 90o.The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag-cup type. The rotor bars
are placed on the slots and short-circuited at both ends by end rings. The diameter of the rotor is
kept small in order to reduce inertia and to obtain good accelerating characteristics. The drag cup
construction is employed for very low inertia applications. In this type of construction the rotor
will be in the form of hollow cylinder made of aluminium. The aluminium cylinder itself acts as
short-circuited rotor conductors. Electrically both the types of rotor are identical.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
The stator windings are excited by voltages of equal magnitude and 90o phase difference. These
results in exciting currents i1 and i2 that are phase displaced by 90o and have equal values. These
currents give rise to a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude. The direction of rotation
depends on the phase relationship of the two currents (or voltages). This rotating magnetic field
sweeps over the rotor conductors. The rotor conductor experience a change in flux and so
voltages are induced rotor conductors. This voltage circulates currents in the short-circuited rotor
conductors and currents create rotor flux. Due to the interaction of stator & rotor flux, a
mechanical force (or torque) is developed on the rotor and so the rotor starts moving in the same
direction as that of rotating magnetic field.
73
GENERAL SCHEMATIC OF AC SERVOMOTOR:
FORMULAE USED:
Transfer function, Gm (s) = Km / (1+ stm)
Where
Motor gain constant, Km = K / FO + F
K is DT / DC
FO is DT / DN
Torque, T is 9.81 X R (S1 ~ S2)
R is radius of the rotor in m
Frictional co-efficient, F = W / (2pN / 60)2
Frictional loss, W is 30 % of constant loss in Watts
Constant loss in watts = No load input – Copper loss
74
No load i/p = V (IR+IC)
V is supply voltage, V
IR is current through reference winding, A
IC is current through control winding, A
Copper loss in watts = IC2 RC
RC = 174W
N is rated speed in rpm
Motor time constant, tm = J / FO + F
Moment of inertia J is pd4 L R ρ / 32
d is diameter of the rotor in m ( Given d =39.5 mm)
LR is length of the rotor in m (Given L R =76 mm)
ρ is density = 7.8 X 102 gm / m
PROCEDURE
1. Ensure that all control pots are in minimum position and motor brake drum is free
to rotate.
2. Switch on the power supply and adjust the control voltage to a certain value and fix
it.
3. Note down the No-load speed
4. Now load the motor by tightening the wheels of spring balance. Note down speed,
S1, & S2 values.
5. Repeat step 4 by increasing the load for 4 different set of loads.
6. Now remove the brake on the motor by loosening the wheels
7. Fix the control voltage at 4 different values and for each value perform steps 3,4,5.
8. Calculate torque and plot Torque VS speed characteristic for different control
voltages.
75
To determine the motor gain constant Km
1. Check whether the MCB is in OFF position.
2. Patch the circuit using the patching diagram.
3. Set the control pot in minimum position.
4. Check whether the motor is in no load condition
5. Switch ON the MCB
6. Vary the control pot and apply rated voltage to the reference phase winding and control phase
winding. Note down the no load speed.
7. Apply load in steps. For each load applied note down the speed and spring balance readings. (
Take 3 or 4 sets of readings)
8. Reduce the load fully and allow the motor to run at rated speed.
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 for 75 % control winding voltage.
10. Draw the graph between speed and torque, the slope of the graph gives FO.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No SPEED(r.p.m) Eb(Volts)
76
S.No VC (V) N Sb S2 Torque
(r.p.m)
Speed N1 = Speed N2 =
Control Spring Balance Torque Speed Spring Balance Control

values T values
S. No Voltage Voltage
Vc S1 S2 S1 S2 Vc
(V) (kg kg Nm rpm Kg Kg V
Control voltage Vc1 = Control voltage Vc2 =
Speed Spring Balance Spring Balance Torque

values Torque Speed values
S. No N T
T N
S1 S2 S1 S2
(Nm) (rpm)
(rpm) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (Nm)
77
MODEL GRAPH: TORQUE - SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
MODEL GRAPH: TORQUE - CONTROL VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS
RESULT: Speed torque characteristics of AC Servomotor are observed.
APPLICATIONS:
1) Semiconductor Equipment
2) Machine Tools, Special Purpose Machine
3) Packing and Food process Machine
4) Medical Equipment, Defense Industry.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) Draw the characteristics AC servomotor

2) Find the speed control of AC servomotor
3) Find the time constant AC servo motor
4) Draw the characteristics between rotor and stator angle with feed back
5) Draw the characteristics between rotor and stator angle without feed back
78
ASSESMENT QUESTIONS:
1. What is a servomotor?
2. What are the applications of servomotor?
3. How can we get the feed back characteristics of A.C Servomotor?
4. How do you load the A.C Servomotor?
5. Why a servomotor should not be switched on load?
6. How can a A.C servomotor be controlled?
79
6.7 Study of characteristics of Synchros
Preamble:
Aim: To study the characteristics of Synchros transmitter and receiver system.
1 Synchros
transmitter and 1
receiver kit
2 Multimeter
1) Multimeter:
80
2) Synchros transmitter and receiver kit :
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
1Ф A.C
Supply
81
82
THEORY:
Normally, the rotor windings of a wound rotor induction motor are shorted out after starting.
During starting, resistance may be placed in series with the rotor windings to limit starting
current. If these windings are connected to a common starting resistance, the two rotors will
remain synchronized during starting. (Figure below) This is usefull for printing presses and draw
bridges, where two motors need to be synchronized during starting. Once started, and the rotors
are shorted, the synchronizing torque is absent. The higher the resistance during starting, the
higher the synchronizing torque for a pair of motors. If the starting resistors are removed, but the
rotors still paralleled, there is no starting torque. However there is a substantial synchronizing
torque. This is aselsyn, which is an abbreviation for “self synchronous”.
Starting wound rotor induction motors from common resistors.
The rotors may be stationary. If one rotor is moved through an angle θ, the other selsyn shaft will
move through an angle θ. If drag is applied to one selsyn, this will be felt when attempting to
rotate the other shaft. While multi-horsepower (multi-kilowatt) selsyns exist, the main
appplication is small units of a few watts for instrumentation applications– remote position
indication.
Selsyns without starting resistance.

Instrumentation selsyns have no use for starting resistors. (Figure above) They are not intended
to be self rotating. Since the rotors are not shorted out nor resistor loaded, no starting torque is
developed. However, manual rotation of one shaft will produce an unbalance in the rotor currents
until the parallel unit's shaft follows. Note that a common source of three phase power is applied
83
to both stators. Though we show three phase rotors above, a single phase powered rotor is
sufficient as shown in Figure below.
Transmitter - receiver
Small instrumentation selsyns, also known as sychros, use single phase paralleled, AC energized
rotors, retaining the 3-phase paralleled stators, which are not externally energized.
(Figure below) Synchros function as rotary transformers. If the rotors of both the torque
transmitter (TX) and torque receiver (RX) are at the same angle, the phases of the induced stator
voltages will be identical for both, and no current will flow. Should one rotor be displaced from
the other, the stator phase voltages will differ between transmitter and receiver. Stator current
will flow developing torque. The receiver shaft is electrically slaved to the transmitter shaft.
Either the transmitter or receiver shaft may be rotated to turn the opposite unit.
Synchros have single phase powered rotors.
Synchro stators are wound with 3-phase windings brought out to external terminals. The single
rotor winding of a torque transmitter or receiver is brough out by brushed slip rings. Synchro
transmitters and receivers are electrically identical. However, a synchro receiver has inertial
damping built in. A synchro torque transmitter may be substituted for a torque receiver.
Remote position sensing is the main synchro application. (Figure below) For example, a synchro
transmitter coupled to a radar antenna indicates antenna position on an indicator in a control
room. A synchro transmitter coupled to a weather vane indicates wind direction at a remote
console. Synchros are available for use with 240 Vac 50 Hz, 115 Vac 60 Hz, 115 Vac 400 Hz,
and 26 Vac 400 Hz power.
84
Synchro application: remote position indication.
Differential transmitter - receiver
A synchro differential transmitter (TDX) has both a three phase rotor and stator. (Figure below)
A synchro differential transmitter adds a shaft angle input to an electrical angle input on the rotor
inputs, outputting the sum on the stator outputs. This stator electrical angle may be displayed by
sending it to an RX. For example, a synchro receiver displays the position of a radar antenna
relative to a ship's bow. The addition of a ship's compass heading by a synchro differential
transmitter, displays antenna postion on an RX relative to true north, regardless of ship's heading.
Reversing the S1-S3 pair of stator leads between a TX and TDX subtracts angular positions.
Torque differential transmitter (TDX).
85
A shipboard radar antenna coupled to a synchro transmitter encodes the antenna angle with
respect to ship's bow. (Figure below) It is desired to display the antenna position with respect to
true north. We need to add the ships heading from a gyrocompass to the bow-relative antenna
position to display antenna angle with respect to true north. ∠antenna + ∠gyro
Torque differential transmitter application: angular addition.
∠antenna-N = ∠antenna + ∠gyro
∠rx = ∠tx + ∠gy
For example, ship's heading is ∠30o, antenna position relative to ship's bow is ∠0o, ∠antenna-N
is:
∠rx = ∠tx + ∠gy
∠30o = ∠30o + ∠0o

Example, ship's heading is ∠30o, antenna position relative to ship's bow is ∠15o, ∠antenna-N is:
∠45o = ∠30o + ∠15o
Addition vs subtraction
For reference we show the wiring diagrams for subtraction and addition of shaft angles using
both TDX's (Torque Differential transmitter) and TDR's (Torque Differential Receiver). The
TDX has a torque angle input on the shaft, an electrical angle input on the three stator
connections, and an electrical angle output on the three rotor connections. The TDR has
86
electrical angle inputs on both the stator and rotor. The angle output is a torque on the TDR shaft.
The difference between a TDX and a TDR is that the TDX is a torque transmitter and the TDR a
torque receiver.
TDX subtraction.
The torque inputs in Figure above are TX and TDX. The torque output angular difference is TR.
TDX Addition.
The torque inputs in Figure above are TX and TDX. The torque output angular sum is TR.
TDR subtraction.
The torque inputs in Figure above are TX1 and TX2. The torque output angular difference is
TDR.
87
TDR addition.
The torque inputs in Figure above are TX1 and TX2. The torque output angular sum is TDR.
Control transformer
A variation of the synchro transmitter is the control transformer. It has three equally spaced
stator windings like a TX. Its rotor is wound with more turns than a transmitter or receiver to
make it more sensitive at detecting a null as it is rotated, typically, by a servo system. The CT
(Control Transformer) rotor output is zero when it is oriented at a angle right angle to the stator
magnetic field vector. Unlike a TX or RX, the CT neither transmits nor receives torque. It is
simply a sensitive angular position detector.
88
Control transformer (CT) detects servo null.
In Figure above, the shaft of the TX is set to the desired position of the radar antenna. The servo
system will cause the servo motor to drive the antenna to the commanded position. The CT
compares the commanded to actual position and signals the servo amplifier to drive the motor
until that commanded angle is achieved.
Servo uses CT to sense antenna position null

When the control transformer rotor detects a null at 90o to the axis of the stator field, there is no
rotor output. Any rotor displacement produces an AC error voltage proportional to displacement.
A servo (Figure above) seeks to minimize the error between a commanded and measured
variable due to negative feedback. The control transformer compares the shaft angle to the the
stator magnetic field angle, sent by the TX stator. When it measures a minimum, or null, the
servo has driven the antenna and control transformer rotor to the commanded position. There is
no error between measured and commanded position, no CT, control transformer, output to be
amplified. The servo motor, a 2-phase motor, stops rotating. However, any CT detected error
drives the amplifier which drives the motor until the error is minimized. This corresponds to the
servo system having driven the antenna coupled CT to match the angle commanded by the TX.
The servo motor may drive a reduction gear train and be large compared to the TX and CT
synchros. However, the poor efficiency of AC servo motors limits them to smaller loads. They
are also difficult to control since they are constant speed devices. However, they can be
controlled to some extent by varying the voltage to one phase with line voltage on the other
phase. Heavy loads are more efficiently driven by large DC servo motors.
Airborne applications use 400Hz components– TX, CT, and servo motor. Size and weight of the
AC magnetic components is inversely proportional to frequency. Therefore, use of 400 Hz
components for aircraft applications, like moving control surfaces, saves size and weight.
89
Resolver
A resolver (Figure below) has two stator winding placed at 90o to each other, and a single rotor
winding driven by alternating current. A resolver is used for polar to rectangular conversion. An
angle input at the rotor shaft produces rectangular co-ordinates sinθ and cosθ proportional
voltages on the stator windings.
Resolver converts shaft angle to sine and cosine of angle.
For example, a black-box within a radar encodes the distance to a target as a sine wave
proportional voltage V, with the bearing angle as a shaft angle. Convert to X and Y co-ordinates.
The sine wave is fed to the rotor of a resolver. The bearing angle shaft is coupled to the resolver
shaft. The coordinates (X, Y) are available on the resolver stator coils:
X=V(cos(∠bearing))
Y=V(sin(∠bearing))
The Cartesian coordinates (X, Y) may be plotted on a map display.
A TX (torque transmitter) may be adapted for service as a resolver. (Figure below)
Scott-T converts 3-φ to 2-φ enabling TX to perform resolver function.
90
It is possible to derive resolver-like quadrature angular components from a synchro transmitter
by using a Scott-T transformer. The three TX outputs, 3-phases, are processed by a Scott-
T transformer into a pair of quadrature components. See Scott-T chapter 9 for details.
There is also a linear version of the resolver known as an inductosyn. The rotary version of
the inductosyn has a finer resolution than a resolver.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the mains supply to the unit.
2. Varying rotor position of Transmitter in steps of 300 note down VS1S2, VS2S3, VS3S1
readings.
3. Connect S1, S2, S3 of Transmitter to S1, S2, S3 of receiver respectively.
4. Move the rotor of synchro Transmitter in steps of 30 degrees and note down the
change in Receiver rotor.
5. Enter the input angular position Transmitter rotor and output angular position of
Receiver rotor in tabular form and plot a graph.
6. Plot graph settings :
a) (Vs1s2, Vs2s3, Vs3s1) Vs θt
b) θr Vs θt
OBSERVATIONS:
S.NO ROTOR VS3S1 VS1S2 VS3S2
91
POSITION
Model graph:
GRAPHS:
Transmitter Rotor Position Vs Receiver Rotor Position
92
RESULT: The characteristics of synchros are obtained from the graphs drawn
APPLICATIONS:
1) Position detection of an automated carriage
2) Angle detection: antenna bearing angles, and elevation angles
3) Position detection of stackers / reclaimers Detection of boom swing angles and elevation
angles
4) Detection of winding length / Detection of roll interval
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) Draw the characteristics Synchros

2) Find the maximum emf in a Synchros
3) Do the suitable experiment to detect the angle
4) Do the suitable experiment to detect wind length
5) Do the suitable experiment to detect the angle of antenna
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is a synchro?
2. What is the use of synchro?
3. What is the constructional difference between synchro transmitter & synchro
receiver?
4. What is the relation between a synchro & a transformer?
5. Where do we get maximum e m f in a synchro?
6. When we will get maximum e m f in a synchro?
7. What is the phase different between three voltages induced in the stator of synchro
and why ?
8. How do you determine zero position of synchro
9. what is the error voltage induced ?
93
Block diagram reduction technique using MATLAB
PREAMBLE: Pictorial representation of functions performed by each component of a
system and that of flow of signals.
Aim: simulation of multi feedback system
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB – Personal Computer with MATLAB
THEORY:
Block diagram is a diagram of a system in which the principal parts or functions are represented
by blocks connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks.[1] They are heavily used
in the engineering world in hardware design, electronic design, software design, and process
flow diagrams.
Overview
The block diagram is typically used for a higher level, less detailed description aimed more at
understanding the overall concepts and less at understanding the details of implementation.
Contrast this with the schematic diagram and layout diagram used in the electrical engineering
world, where the schematic diagram shows the details of each electrical component and the
layout diagram shows the details of physical construction.
Because block diagrams are a visual language for describing actions in a complex system, it is
possible to formalize them into a specialized programmable logic controller (PLC) programming
language. An example is the Function block diagram, one of five programming languages
defined in part 3 of the IEC 61131 (see IEC 61131-3) standard.
Since this is a real, bona fide computer programming language, it is highly formalized
(see formal system) with strict rules for how diagrams are to be built. Directed lines are used to
connect input variables to function inputs, function outputs to output variables, and function
outputs to inputs of other functions.
94
These blocks portray mathematical or logical operations that occur in time sequence. They do
not represent the physical entities, such as processors or relays, that perform those operations.
Each block is therefore a black box. The rules require the logical sequence to go from left to
right and top to bottom.
Usage
As an example, a block diagram of a radio is not expected to show each and every wire and dial
and switch, but the schematic diagram is. The schematic diagram of a radio does not show the
width of each wire in the printed circuit board, but the layout diagram does.
To make an analogy to the map making world, a block diagram is similar to a highway map of an
entire nation. The major cities (functions) are listed but the minor county roads and city streets
are not. When troubleshooting, this high level map is useful in narrowing down and isolating
where a problem or fault is.[2]
Block diagrams rely on the principle of the black box where the contents are hidden from view
either to avoid being distracted by the details or because the details are not known. We know
what goes in, we know what goes out, but we can't see how the box does its work.[3][4]
In electrical engineering, a design will often begin as a very high level block diagram, becoming
more and more detailed block diagrams as the design progresses, finally ending in block
diagrams detailed enough that each individual block can be easily implemented (at which point
the block diagram is also a schematic diagram). This is known as top down design.[4] Geometric
shapes are often used in the diagram to aid interpretation and clarify meaning of the process or
model. The geometric shapes are connected by lines to indicate association and direction/order of
traversal. Each engineering discipline has their own meaning for each shape.
In biology there is an increasing use of engineering principles,techniques of analysis and

methods of diagramming. There is some similarity between the block diagram and what is
called Systems Biology Graphical Notation. As it is there is use made in systems biology of the
block diagram technique harnessed by control engineering[5] where the latter itself is an
application of control theory.
95
Rule:1
Rule: 2 (Associative and Commutative Properties)
Rule: 3 (Distributive Property)
Rule: 4 (Blocks in Parallel)
96
Rule: 5 (Positive Feedback Loop)
Rule: 6 (Negative Feedback loop)
97
Equivalent: 1
98
Equivalent: 2
Series configuration: If the two blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks are said
to be in series. It would like multiplying two transfer functions. The MATLAB command for the such
configuration is “series”.
The series command is implemented as shown below
99
Parallel configuration: If the two blocks are connected as shown below then the blocks are said to
be in parallel. It would like adding two transfer functions
The MATLAB command for implementing a parallel configuration is “parallel” as shown below:
100
Blockdiagram:
PROGRAM:
101
RESULT:
APPLICATIONS:
 to find the effeciency of a systems

 to find the gains of a motors and generators
 to draw the signal flow garpahs
 to find the transfer function of a system
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1. find the transfer function for a given system

2. draw the signal flow garph of a given system and verify in MATLAB
3. find the ratio of output response to input rseponse of a given system
4. reduce the given block diagarm into single block
5. eliminate all feedbacks, series, blocks, parllal blocks
SAMPLE VIVA VOCE QUESTIONS:
1. define transfer function

2. define signal flow graph
3. define forwrad path
4. define feed back path
5. define block
6. define gain
102
6.8 Time Response of Second order system
PREAMBLE:
AIM: To obtain the time response of a second order system.
1 Time Response
1
Kit
2 Multimeter
3 Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope
1) Multimeter:
103
2) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
3) Time Response Kit
104
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
THEORY:
When a system is given an excitation (INPUT), there is a response (OUTPUT). This response
varies with time, and is called the time response.
Time response is divided into two parts.
1) Transient Response - It is the part of response that goes to zero as the time in-
creases.
2) Steady state Response - That part of the response that remains after the transients
have died out
105
TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Delay Time (td): - It is the value of time required for the response to reach 50% of
final value in first attempt.
2. Rise Rime (tr):- It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of
the final value for the over damped system and 0 to 100% value for under damped
system.
3. Peak Time (tp) : - It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of the
time response or the peak overshoot.
4. Peak Overshoot (MP): - It indicates the normalized difference between the time
response peak & steady state output. It is defined as peak percent overshoot.
C (tp)  C (00)
%MP=  100
C (00)
Where C (tp) is output at t = tp & C (00) is steady state output.
5. Settling time (ts): - It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within
a specific tolerance band (usually 2 to 5%) of its final value.
6. Steady State Error: - It indicates the error between the actual output & desired
output as t tends to infinity.
Ess=Lim[r(t) - c(t)]
t∞
CALCULATIONS :
MP=e-/ 1   X 100 %
2
1.

2. tr=
d
3. Damping Angle  = Cos-1 

4. tp = = ………………. s
d
4
5. ts= = ………….. For 2% tolerance.
n
106
107
PROCEDURE :
1. Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Connect repeated step input to RLC circuit.
3. Make power on to the unit.
4. Connect C.R.O. at the output and adjust C.R.O. to get stable pattern on C.R.O.
5. Vary R by potentiometer and for a given set of values of L & C, note down R for
critically damped response
6. Vary R to obtain under damped response and measure R value, time response
specifications.
7. Plot the same response on Graph paper.
NOTE: Actual value of R is R + resistance of Inductance
RESULT: Time Response specifications are obtained
OBSERVATIONS:
C ω n= 1 ωd
ζ =R
R L C L √LC
SET1
0<ζ<1
SET2
ζ=1
SET3
ζ>1
108
GRAPHS :
APPLICATIONS:
1) used in amplifiers
2) used in feedback systems
3) used to find the error in the system
4) used to find the different times of the system
5) to find the stability
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) For the given second order system find the delay time
2) For the given second order system find the rise time
3) For the given second order system find the peek time
4) For the given second order system find the settling time
5) find the time response of second order system
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is delay time?

2. What is rise time?
3. What is peak time?
4. What is peak overshoot?
5. What is settling time?
109
6.9 Effect of P, PD, PI, PID controller on a second order systems
PREAMBLE:
AIM: To observe the effect of P, PD, PI, and PID Controller on Second Order System.
1 P,PD,PI,PID
1
Controller Kit
2 Multimeter
3 Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope
1) Multimeter:
2) Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
110
P, PD, PI, PID Controller Kit
111
CIRCUTE DIAGRAM :
THEORY :
A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a control loop feedback

mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems. A PID controller calculates
an error value as the difference between a measured process variable and a desired set point. The
controller attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process through use of a manipulated
variable.
The PID controller algorithm involves three separate constant parameters, and is accordingly
sometimes called three-term control: the proportional, the integral and derivative values,
denoted P, I, and D. Simply put, these values can be interpreted in terms of time: P depends on
the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of future errors,
based on current rate of change.[1] The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the
process via a control element such as the position of a control valve, a damper, or the power
supplied to a heating element.
In the absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller has historically been
considered to be the best controller.[2] By tuning the three parameters in the PID controller
algorithm, the controller can provide control action designed for specific process requirements.
The response of the controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to
an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the set point, and the degree of system
oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal
control of the system or system stability.
112
Some applications may require using only one or two actions to provide the appropriate system
control. This is achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A PID controller will be called a
PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are fairly
common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the absence of an
integral term may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control action.
INTEGRAL ACTION (I ACTION):
113
This is proportional to the integral of error, thus is dependent on the history of the out
put and not only the current value. thus, the value of integral action contribution isnot as
obvious from the apparent output plot as in case of proportional contribution. The effect of 1
action is to reduce average value of the steady state error. Note that if steady state error is not
constant( for example steady state error of sinusoidal + some constant value) then PI controller
reduces the dc part ( the average value) to zero and now sinusoidal variation about zero dc
value remains. The disadvantage of integral action is that it increases system’s setting time. A
typical output plot with PI action (proportional+ integral) is shown below. For this Kd is set to
zero.
DERIVATIVE ACTION (D ACTION):
The third term of PID controller transfer equation contributes proportional to the time
derivative of error (or rate of change of error). This part is introduced to compensate against the
output variations with respect to time.
If steady state error is not constant (for example steady state error of sinusoidal+ some
constant value) then PD controller reduces the varying part to zero and the constant steady error
of average value remains.
The D action depends on few past and the current error value and not the complete
history as in case of integral action. The contribution is high - speed changes in output that may
occur because of various reasons. This
also responds to the output variations that may rise due to noise in the sensing, conditioning and
feedback network which is unnecessary and hence these parts must be precision type.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the block diagram shown

2. Switch ON the main power supply and select Input square wave signal of certain
amplitude and frequency. Note the input waveform from C.R.o.
P-Controller:
3. Switch ON Proportional stage keeping integral, derivative stage in OFF position
114
4. Vary the proportional gain KP for 3 to 4 values and note down the Output C(S)
waveforms for each value.
PD Controller:
5. Switch ON derivative stage keeping integeral stage OFF and fix KP at certain value.
6. Vary Derivative gain Dt for 3 to 4 values and Note down the Output C(S)
waveforms for each value
PI Controller:
7. Switch OFF Dt stage, Switch ON Integral stage and Fix KP at certain value
8. Vary Integral gain Int for 3 to 4 values and note down the output C(S) waveforms
for each value.
PID Controller:
9. Switch ON all the three controllers fix derivative, Integral controller at certain
values.
10. Vary proportional controller gain KP and note down output C(S) waveforms.
11. Compare the output waveforms for different controller gains and write remarks on
the effects of various controller gains on 2nd order system time response
specifications.
Observations:
Controller Maximum Rise Settling Steady-

KP KI KD
overshoot time (s) time (s) state error
4.1 Open loop - - -
4.2 P
4.3 PD
4.4 PI
4.5 PID
115
RESULT :
The effect of P, PI, PD, PID controllers are studied
APPLICATIONS:
1) To control the speed of DC motor
2) Used in regulators
3) Used in power controllers
4) Used in neural networks
5) Used in FLC
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1. Perform a block diagram reduction to obtain a single transfer function for the system with P
control.
2. For the system with PD control, calculate the closed loop system poles. Hence, state whether
the closed loop system is overdamped, critically damped or underdamped.
3. Explain why there is no steady-state error when using PI control.
4. Give some advantages of minimizing the settling time.
5. Find the system type for the system without any controller, and the systems with P, PD, PI
and PID controllers.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the use of a controller in control system?

2. What is the use of proportionality controller?
3. Why is integral controller used?
4. Why is differential controller used?
5. How can you rectify an error using controller?
6. What is meant by sampling network?
7. How do you sense the errors in a control system?
8. What do you mean by tuning of controller?
9. Which controller is most commonly used?
116
117
6.10Linear system analysis (Time domain analysis, Error Analysis) Using MATLAB
PREAMBLE:
AIM: To digitally simulate the time response characteristics of higher-order MIMO linear
systems using state – variable formulation
1 2 GB RAM
PC with matlab 360 GB HD

software
Dual core
processor
Theory:
Introduction to MATLAB & SIMULINK
What is MATLAB?
MATLAB® is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems and
solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. Typical uses include
 Math and computation
 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including graphical user interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially
those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a
program in a scalar no interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to provide
easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK projects. Today,
118
MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS libraries, embedding the state of the art
in software for matrix computation.
MATLAB has evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university
environments, it is the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in
mathematics, engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for high-
productivity research, development, and analysis.
MATLAB features a family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very

important to most users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow you to learn and apply specialized
technology. Toolboxes are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that
extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which
toolboxes are available include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic,
wavelets, simulation, and many others.
Starting MATLAB
Instructions for starting MATLAB® depend on your platform. For a list of supported
platforms, see the system requirements in the installation documentation, or the Products section
of the MathWorks Web site, http://www.mathworks.com
Starting MATLAB on Windows Platforms To start MATLAB on a Microsoft Windows

platform, select the Start -> Programs -> MATLAB 7.0 -> MATLAB 7.0, or double-click the
MATLAB shortcut icon on your Windows desktop. The shortcut was automatically created by
the installer
When a system is given an excitation (INPUT), there is a response (OUTPUT). This response
varies with time, and is called the time response.
Time response is divided into two parts.
Transient Response - It is the part of response that goes to zero as the time increases.
Steady state Response - That part of the response that remains after the transients have died out
119
TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Delay Time (td): - It is the value of time required for the response to reach 50% of
final value in first attempt.
2. Rise Rime (tr):- It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90% of
the final value for the over damped system and 0 to 100% value for under damped
system.
3. Peak Time (tp) : - It is the time required for the response to reach the peak of the
time response or the peak overshoot.
4. Peak Overshoot (MP): - It indicates the normalized difference between the time
response peak & steady state output. It is defined as peak percent overshoot.
C (tp)  C (00)
%MP=  100
C (00)
Where C (tp) is output at t = tp & C (00) is steady state output.
7. Settling time (ts): - It is the time required for the response to reach and stay within
a specific tolerance band (usually 2 to 5%) of its final value.
8. Steady State Error: - It indicates the error between the actual output & desired
output as t tends to infinity.
Ess=Lim[r(t) - c(t)]
t∞
CALCULATIONS :
MP=e-/ 1   X 100 %
2
6.

7. tr=
d
8. Damping Angle  = Cos-1 

9. tp = = ………………. s
d
4
10. ts= = ………….. For 2% tolerance.
n
120
121
PROCEDURE for typing the program in matlab :
Step1: click on matlab icon
Step2: click on matlab icon, the window as shown below will apear on screen
Step3: go to files menu click on new mfile
122
Step4: editor window opens After clicking blank mfile
123
Step5: start writing the programe inthe editor window
124
Step6: after finished writing the progarme click on debug > run
125
Step7:the oupput waveform/charcterstics will appear in a new window
Now tabulate the values and plot the garph
126
PROGRAM:
Transfer function of the given 4 systems
Four typical cases are as follows:

case1: Over damped
num=[4];
den=[1 5 4];
sys=tf(num,den);
step(sys);
output:
127
Case2: Under damped
Matlab program:
num=[4];
den=[1 1 4];
sys=tf(num,den);
step(sys);
output:
128
Case3: over damped
Matlab program:
num=[4];
den=[1 0 4];
sys=tf(num,den);
step(sys);
output:
129
Case3:critically damped
Matlab program:
num=[4];
den=[1 4 4];
sys=tf(num,den);
step(sys);
output:
130
Result & conclusions:
APPLICATIONS:
1) used in amplifiers
2) used in feedback systems
3) used to find the error in the system
4) used to find the different times of the system
5) to find the stability
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1) For the given second order system find the delay time using mat lab
2) For the given second order system find the rise time using mat lab
3) For the given second order system find the peek time using mat lab
4) For the given second order system find the settling time using mat lab
5) find the time response of second order system using mat lab
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) Define linear system.
2) What is impulse signal?
3) What is MIMO?
4) What is time invariant system?
5) What is step signal?
131
6.11 Stability analysis (Bode Plot) of Linear time invariant system Using MATLAB
PREAMBLE:from the bode plot we can find the frequencey response of a given system from
this plot we can find the stability ,gain margin, phase margin of the given system
AIM: To find bode plot of MATLAB.
1 2 GB RAM
PC with
360 GB HD
MATLAB 1
software Dual core
processor
THEORY:
A Bode plot is a graph of the transfer function of a linear, time-invariant system versus
frequency, plotted with a log-frequency axis, to show the system's frequency response. It is
usually a combination of a Bode magnitude plot, expressing the magnitude of the frequency
response gain, and a Bode phase plot, expressing the frequency response phase shift.
Over view:
Among his several important contributions to circuit theory and control theory, engineer Hendrik
Wade Bode (1905–1982), while working at Bell Labs in the United States in the 1930s, devised a
simple but accurate method for graphing gain and phase-shift plots. These bear his name, Bode
gain plot and Bode phase plot. "Bode" is pronounced
The magnitude axis of the Bode plot is usually expressed as decibels of power, that is by the 20
log rule: 20 times the common (base 10) logarithm of the amplitude gain. With the magnitude
gain being logarithmic, Bode plots make multiplication of magnitudes a simple matter of adding
distances on the graph (in decibels), since
A Bode phase plot is a graph of phase versus frequency, also plotted on a log-frequency axis,
usually used in conjunction with the magnitude plot, to evaluate how much a signal will
be phase-shifted. For example a signal described by: Asin(ωt) may be attenuated but also
132
phase-shifted. If the system attenuates it by a factor x and phase shifts it by −Φ the signal out
of the system will be (A/x) sin(ωt − Φ). The phase shift Φ is generally a function of
frequency.
Phase can also be added directly from the graphical values, a fact that is mathematically clear
when phase is seen as the imaginary part of the complex logarithm of a complex gain.
Frequency Response Notations

If we have a system transfer function T(s), we can separate it into a numerator polynomial N(s)
and a denominator polynomial D(s). We can write this as follows:
To get the magnitude gain plot, we must first transition the transfer function into the frequency
response by using the change of variables:
From here, we can say that our frequency response is a composite of two parts, a real part R and
an imaginary part X:
We will use these forms below.
133
Straight-Line Approximations
The Bode magnitude and phase plots can be quickly and easily approximated by using a series of
straight lines. These approximate graphs can be generated by following a few short, simple rules
(listed below). Once the straight-line graph is determined, the actual Bode plot is a smooth curve
that follows the straight lines, and travels through the breakpoints.
Break Points[edit]
If the frequency response is in pole-zero form:
We say that the values for all zn and pm are called break points of the Bode plot. These are the
values where the Bode plots experience the largest change in direction.
Break points are sometimes also called "break frequencies", "cutoff points", or "corner points".
Bode Gain Plots
Bode Gain Plots, or Bode Magnitude Plots display the ratio of the system gain at each input
frequency.
Bode Gain Calculations[edit]
The magnitude of the transfer function T is defined as:
However, it is frequently difficult to transition a function that is in "numerator/denominator"

form to "real+imaginary" form. Luckily, our decibel calculation comes in handy. Let's say we
have a frequency response defined as a fraction with numerator and denominator polynomials
defined as:
If we convert both sides to decibels, the logarithms from the decibel calculations convert
multiplication of the arguments into additions, and the divisions into subtractions:
And calculating out the gain of each term and adding them together will give the gain of the
system at that frequency.
a) BODE PLOT for 2nd , 3rd ,4th & 5th order systems:
2nd order system:
134
25
The transfer function is G(s) = . Plot the bode
s  4 s  25
2
Program:
num=[0 0 25];
den=[1 4 25];
h=tf(num,den)
bode(h)
Output:
3rd order system:
The transfer function is G(s) =


9 s 2  0.2s  1 
. Plot the bode
s( s 2  4s  25)
135
Program:
num=[0 9 1.8 9];
den=[1 1.2 9 0];
h=tf(num,den)
bode(h)
4th order system:
4(2s  1)
The transfer function is G(s)= . obtain the Bode plot(p.611)
s ( s 2  0.4s  4)
2
Program:
num=[0 0 0 8 4];
den=[1 0.4 4 0 0];
h=tf(num,den)
bode(h)
5th order system:
40( s  0.4)( s  0.2)

The transfer function is G(s) =
s( s  4)( s  0.02)( s  1)( s  2)
Plot the bode plot.(p.670)
Program:
num=[0 0 0 40 24 3.2];
den=[1 9.02 24.18 16.48 0.32 0];
h=tf(num,den)
bode(h)
Result & conclusions: Bode plot is plotted for the given transfer function is plotted using
MATLAB has been successfully completed
Applications:
electronics for determining to stability of op-amps
136
for determining to stability of transistors
Esentially a plot of phase against frequency compared with gain against frequency.
Sample quesstions:
2. Find the gain margin of a given plot

3. Find the phase margin of a given plot
4. Find the frequence response of a given plot
5. Check the stability of a given system
6. Draw the bode plot of a given system
Sample Viva Voce Quesstions:
1. What is gain margin

2. What is phase margin
3. What is frequence response
4. What is meant by stability
5. What is meant by bode plot
137
STABILITY ANALYSIS USING ROOT LOCUS USING MATLAB
PREAMBLE: from this we can find the stability of a given system in time domain it will gives
the location of the poles .
AIM: To find root locus plot of MATLAB.
1 2 GB RAM
PC with
360 GB HD
MATLAB 1
software Dual core
processor
Theroy:
In control theory and stability theory, root locus analysis is a graphical method for examining
how the roots of a system change with variation of a certain system parameter, commonly
a gain within a feedback system. This is a technique used as a stability criterion in the field
of control systems developed by Walter R. Evans which can determinestability of the system.
The root locus plots the poles of the closed loop transfer function as a function of a gain
parameter.
Uses:
In addition to determining the stability of the system, the root locus can be used to design
the damping ratio and natural frequency of a feedback system. Lines of constant damping ratio
can be drawn radially from the origin and lines of constant natural frequency can be drawn as
arcs whose center points coincide with the origin. By selecting a point along the root locus that
coincides with a desired damping ratio and natural frequency a gain, K, can be calculated and
implemented in the controller. More elaborate techniques of controller design using the root
locus are available in most control textbooks: for instance, lag, lead, PI, PD and PID controllers
can be designed approximately with this technique.
The definition of the damping ratio and natural frequency presumes that the overall feedback
system is well approximated by a second order system; i.e. the system has a dominant pair
138
of poles. This is often not the case, so it is good practice to simulate the final design to check if
the project goals are satisfied
Suppose there is a plant (process) with a transfer function expression P(s), and a forward
controller with both an adjustable gain K and output expression C(s) as shown in the block
diagram below.
A unity feedback loop is constructed to complete this feedback system. For this system, the
overall transfer function is given by
Thus the closed-loop poles (roots of the characteristic equation) of the transfer function are the
solutions to the equation 1+ KC(s)P(s) = 0. The principal feature of this equation is that roots
may be found wherever KCP = -1. The variability of K, the gain for the controller, removes
amplitude from the equation, meaning the complex valued evaluation of the polynomial in
s C(s)P(s) needs to have net phase of 180 deg, wherever there is a closed loop pole. The
geometrical construction adds angle contributions from the vectors extending from each of the
poles of KC to a prospective closed loop root (pole) and subtracts the angle contributions from
similar vectors extending from the zeros, requiring the sum be 180. The vector formulation arises
from the fact that each polynomial term in the factored CP,(s-a) for example, represents the
vector from a which is one of the roots, to s which is the prospective closed loop pole we are
seeking. Thus the entire polynomial is the product of these terms, and according to vector
mathematics the angles add (or subtract, for terms in the denominator) and lengths multiply (or
divide). So to test a point for inclusion on the root locus, all you do is add the angles to all the
139
open loop poles and zeros. Indeed a form of protractor, the "spirule" was once used to draw exact
root loci.
From the function T(s), we can also see that the zeros of the open loop system (CP) are also the
zeros of the closed loop system. It is important to note that the root locus only gives the location
of closed loop poles as the gain K is varied, given the open loop transfer function. The zeros of a
system can not be moved.
Using a few basic rules, the root locus method can plot the overall shape of the path (locus)
traversed by the roots as the value of K varies. The plot of the root locus then gives an idea of the
stability and dynamics of this feedback system for different values of k.
Sketching Root Locus
 Mark open-loop poles and zeros

 Mark real axis portion to the left of an odd number of poles and zeros
 Find asymptotes
Let P be the number of poles and Z be the number of zeros:
number of asymptotes
The asymptotes intersect the real axis at (which is called the centroid) and depart at angle
given by:
where is the sum of all the locations of the poles, and is the sum of all the locations of
the explicit zeros.
 Phase condition on test point to find angle of departure

 Compute breakaway/break-in points
The breakaway points are located at the roots of the following equation:
140
Once you solve for z, the real roots give you the breakaway/reentry points. Complex roots
correspond to a lack of breakaway/reentry.
The break-away (break-in) points are obtained by solving a polynomial equation
ROOT LOCUS for 2nd , 3rd ,4th & 5th order systems:
2nd order system:
K ( s  2)
The transfer function is G(s) = . Obtain the Root Locus plot.
( s  3)( s  4)
Program:
num=[0 1 2 ];
den=[1 7 12];
rlocus(num,den)
v=[-6 6 6 -6];
axis(v);
grid;
title(‘Root Locus Plot of G(s)=K(s+2)/[(s+3)(s+4)]’)
3rd order system:
K ( s  0 .4 )
The transfer function is G(s) = . Obtain the Root Locus plot.
s 2 ( s  3 .6 )
Program:
num=[0 0 1 0.4];
den=[1 3.6 0 0];
rlocus(num,den)
141
v=[-5 1 –3 3]; axis(v);
grid;
title(‘Root Locus Plot of G(s)=K(s+0.4)/[s^2(s+3.6)]’)
4th order system:
K ( s  3)
The transfer function is G(s) = .. Obtain Root
s( s  1)( s 2  4s  16)
locus plot. (p.360)
Program:
num=[0 0 0 1 3];
den=[1 5 20 16 0];
rlocus(num,den)
v=[-6 6 -6 6];
axis(v); axis(‘square’);
grid;
title(‘Root-Locus Plot of G(s)=K(s+3)/[s(s+1)(s^2+4s+16)]’)
5th order system:
K ( s 2  2s  4)
The transfer function is G(s) = . Obtain the
s ( s  4)( s  6)( s 2  1.4s  1)
Root locus
Program:
num=[0 0 0 1 2 4];
den=[1 11.4 39 43.6 24 0];
rlocus(num,den)
142
v=[-7 3 -5 5];
axis(v); axis(‘square’);
grid;
title(‘Root Locus Plot of G(s) = K(s^2+2s+4)/[s(s+4)(s+6)(s^2+1.4s+1)]’)
Result: Root Locus Plot is plotted for the given transfer function is plotted
using MATLAB has been successfully completed.
Applications:
Electronics for determining to stability of op-amps
Determining to stability of transistors
To find the location of poles for different impdenaces
Sample quesstions:
6. Draw th root locus of a given plot

7. Find the stability of a given system
8. Determine the location of poles for a given system
9. Identify no of poles in left half of s plane
10. Identify no of poles in right half of s plane
11. Identify no of poles in imaginary axis of s plane
1. What is meant by root locus

3. What are stability methods
4. What is meant by asmptotes
5. What is meant by centroid
6. What is meant by angle of arrival
7. Whta is meant by angle of departure
143
STABILITY ANALYSIS USING NYQUIST PLOT USING MATLAB
PREAMBLE: A Nyquist plot is a parametric plot of a frequency response used in automatic
control and signal processing. The most common use of Nyquist plots is for assessing the
stability of a system with feedback. In Cartesian coordinates, the real part of the transfer
function is plotted on the X axis. The imaginary part is plotted on the Y axis. The frequency is
swept as a parameter, resulting in a plot per frequency. Alternatively, in polar coordinates,
the gain of the transfer function is plotted as the radial coordinate,
AIM: To find nyquist plot using MATLAB.
1 2 GB RAM
PC with
360 GB HD
MATLAB 1
software Dual core
processor
Theroy:
Introduction
A Nyquist plot is a parametric plot of a frequency response used in automatic

control and signal processing. The most common use of Nyquist plots is for assessing the
stability of a system with feedback. In Cartesian coordinates, the real part of the transfer
function is plotted on the X axis. The imaginary part is plotted on the Y axis. The frequency
is swept as a parameter, resulting in a plot per frequency. Alternatively, in polar coordinates,
the gain of the transfer function is plotted as the radial coordinate, while the phase of the
transfer function is plotted as the angular coordinate. The Nyquist plot is named after Harry
Nyquist, a former engineer at Bell Laboratories.
144
Uses
Assessment of the stability of a closed-loop negative feedback system is done by applying

the Nyquist stability criterion to the Nyquist plot of the open-loop system (i.e. the same system
without its feedback loop). This method is easily applicable even for systems with delays and
other non-rational transfer functions, which may appear difficult to analyze by means of other
methods. Stability is determined by looking at the number of encirclements of the point at (-1,0).
Range of gains over which the system will be stable can be determined by looking at crossing of
the real axis.
The Nyquist plot can provide some information about the shape of the transfer function. For
instance, the plot provides information on the difference between the number
of polesand zeros of the transfer function[1] by the angle at which the curve approaches the
origin.
Nyquist plot
When drawn by hand, a cartoon version of the Nyquist plot is sometimes used, which shows the
shape of the curve, but where coordinates are distorted to show more detail in regions of interest.
When plotted computationally, one needs to be careful to cover all frequencies of interest. This
typically means that the parameter is swept logarithmically, in order to cover a wide range of
values.
A stability test for time invariant linear systems can also be derived in the frequency domain. It is
known as Nyquist stability criterion. It is based on the complex analysis result known as
Cauchy’s principle of argument.
Note that the system transfer function is a complex function. By applying Cauchy’s principle of
argument to the open-loop system transfer function, we will get information about stability of the
closed-loop system transfer function and arrive at the Nyquist stability criterion (Nyquist, 1932).
The importance of Nyquist stability lies in the fact that it can also be used to determine the
relative degree of system stability by producing the so-called phase and gain stability margins.
These stability margins are needed for frequency domain controller design techniques.
145
We present only the essence of the Nyquist stability criterion and deﬁne the phase and gain
stability margins. The Nyquist method is used for studying the stability of linear systems with
pure time delay. In control theory and stability theory, the Nyquist stability criterion, discovered
by Swedish-American electrical engineerHarry Nyquist at Bell Telephone Laboratories in
1932, is a graphical technique for determining the stability of a system. Because it only looks at
the Nyquist plot of the open loop systems, it can be applied without explicitly computing the
poles and zeros of either the closed-loop or open-loop system (although the number of each type
of right-half-plane singularities must be known). As a result, it can be applied to systems defined
by non-rational functions, such as systems with delays. In contrast to Bode plots, it can
handle transfer functions with right half-plane singularities. In addition, there is a natural
generalization to more complex systems with multiple inputs and multiple outputs, such as
control systems for airplanes.
While Nyquist is one of the most general stability tests, it is still restricted to linear, time-
invariant systems. Non-linear systems must use more complex stability criteria, such
as Lyapunov or the circle criterion. While Nyquist is a graphical technique, it only provides a
limited amount of intuition for why a system is stable or unstable, or how to modify an unstable
system to be stable. Techniques like Bode plots, while less general, are sometimes a more useful
design tool.
Summary:
 If the open-loop transfer function has a zero pole of multiplicity , then the Nyquist
plot has a discontinuity at . During further analysis it should be assumed that the
phasor travels times clock-wise along a semicircle of infinite radius. After applying this
rule, the zero poles should be neglected, i.e. if there are no other unstable poles, then the
open-loop transfer function should be considered stable.
 If the open-loop transfer function is stable, then the closed-loop system is unstable
for any encirclement of the point -1.
 If the open-loop transfer function is unstable, then there must be one counter clock-
wise encirclement of -1 for each pole of in the right-half of the complex plane.
146
 The number of surplus encirclements (greater than N+P) is exactly the number of unstable
poles of the closed-loop system
 However, if the graph happens to pass through the point , then deciding upon even
the marginal stability of the system becomes difficult and the only conclusion that can be
drawn from the graph is that there exist zeros on the axis.
NYQUIST PLOT for 2nd , 3rd ,4th & 5th order systems:
2nd order system:
1
The transfer function is G(s) = . Obtain the Root Locus
s  0. 8 s  1
2
plot. (p.532)
Program:
num=[0 0 1];
den=[1 0.8 1];
nyquist(num,den)
v=[-2 2 -2 2];
axis(v);
grid;
title(‘Nyquist Plot of G(s)=1/s^2+0.8s+1)’)
3rd order system:
20( s 2  s  0.5)
The transfer function is G(s) = . Draw a Nyquist
s( s  1)( s  10)
plot using MATLAB. (p.600)
Program:
147
num=[0 20 20 10];
den=[1 11 10 0];
nyquist(num,den)
v=[-2 3 –3 3]; axis(v);
grid;
title(‘Nyquist Plot of G(s)=20(s^2+s+0.5)/[s(s+1)(s+10)]’)
4TH order system:
100( s  0.1)
The transfer function is G(s) = . Draw a
( s  10)( s 3  3S 2  2S  10)
Nyquist plot using MATLAB. (p.600)
Program:
num=[0 0 0 100 10];
den=[1 13 32 26 60];
nyquist(num,den)
v=[-2 3 –3 3]; axis(v);
grid;
title(‘Nyquist Plot of G(s)=100(s+0.1)/[(s+10)(s^3+3S^2+2S+10)]’)
Result: Nyquist Plot is plotted for the given transfer function is plotted
using MATLAB has been successfully completed.
Applications:
148
 Used in PID controllers
 Process iodentification
 Optimization
 Feed back loop simulator
 Distubance rejection
 Bandwidth caluculation
Sample quesstions:
1. Draw th nyquist plot of a given system

2. Find the stability of a given system using nyquist plot
3. Find gain margin of a given system
4. Find phase margin of a given system
5. Find number of encirclements of a given system

2. What are stability methods
3. What is meant by nyquist plot
4. What is meant by arugument
5. What is meant by encirclement
6. What is meant by gain margin
7. What is meant by phase margin
149
STUDY OF LAG LEAD COMPENSATION
PREAMBLE: A lead–lag compensator is a component in a control system that improves an

undesirable frequency response in a feedback and control system. It is a fundamental building
block in classical control theory.
AIM : To study the characteristics of lag lead compensators
EQIPMENT REQUIRED:
SNO NAME OF EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATIONS
1 CRO (0-10)Mhz
2 Lag lead compensator Trainer Kit -----
SNO NAME OF COMPONENT RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1. Inductor 10 mill henry -- 1
2. Capacitor 10 micro fared -- 1
3. Resistors 10 k Ohm --- 1
4 Multimeters ----- Digital 1
PHOTOS:
1) CRO
2) Lag Lead compensator trainer Kit
150
3) Resistor
4) Inductor
5) Capacitor
151
Theory :
Passive electric components –resistors, capacitors and inductors are used for
implementation of a compensator. However the inductor is a very bulky component at low
frequencies, passive networks are made up of only resistors and capacitors are used in practice.
Condition for reliability of transfer function D(s) with passive resistor capacitor (RC) networks is
that all finite poles of D(s) may lie anywhere in s-plane. By taking an operational amplifier to the
output of passive RC network, it is possible to realize a specified gain of the compensator.
STUDY OF SIMPLE PHASE LEAD NETWORK:
Lead compensator has a single pole and a single zero with the pole lying to the left of the zero
on the negative real axis of the complex plane. The first order compensator is a lead
compensator if p>z.
STUDY OF SIMPLE PHASE LAG NETWOR
A lag compensator has a single pole and a single zero with the pole lying to the right of
zero on negative real axis of the complex plane. The first order compensator is therefore a lag
compensator if p<z.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
152
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram for phase lag network.
2. Switch ON the power supply to function generator and adjust input sine wave to
say 5V.
153
3. C.R.O. is to be connected in X-Y made for phase displacement measurement
connect X-input of CRO to input of lag network and Y- input of C.R.O to output of
lag network.
4. Slowly vary the input frequency and note down the output magnitude to calculate
gain │T (jw)│ and change in phase shift ∟T(jw) using lassjous figures concept
5. Calculate the theoretical values of [T (jw) ] and θ from the formula given above.
6. Plot the graphs of [T(jw) ] and θ adjusting frequency. Find the common frequency.
7. Repeat the above procedure for lead network, lead compensator, lag
compensator.
8. Draw bode plot for all the system.
154
MODEL GRAPHS
155
156
157
158
OBSERVATIONS:
LAG NETWORK:
Practical Theoretical
f Vo Vi |T(j)|db 
S. No. 20 log |T(j)| 
(Hz) (V) (V) |T(jw)| Degrees
10
159
LEAD NETWORK:
f Vo Vi |T(j)|20 
S. No. log |T(j)| 
(Hz) (V) (V) |TLjw|db Degrees
10
LAG COMPENSATOR:
S. No. f Vo Vi IT(j)|db  |T(j)| 

20 log
(Hz) (V) (V)
|T(jw)|)
160
5
10
LEAD COMPEASATOR:
S. f Vo Vi |T(j)|  |T(j)| 
No. db 20
(Hz) (V) (V)
log
|T(jw)I
RESULT: Thus the design of lag lead compensator network has been verified.
APPLICATIONS:
 Used in Robotics
 Used in satelites
 Used in automobile diagnostics
161
 Used in frequency stabilization
 Used in digital control systems
 Used in analog control systems
Sample quesstions:
1. Design alead compensator
2. Design alag compensator
3. Design a lag lead compensator
4. Draw th bode plot for a given lag lead compensator
5. Draw the bode plot for lag compensator
6. Draw the bode plot for lead compensator
Viva Voce quesstions

1. What is mean by compensator
2. What is meant by lag compenstaor
3. What is meant by lead compenstaor
4. What is meant by lag lead compenstaor
5. What is maent by gain
6. What are units for gain
162
STATE MODEL FOR CLASSICAL TRANSFER FUNCTION & VICE VERSA USING MATLAB
PREAMBLE: The concept of the state of a dynamic system refers to a minimum set of
variables, knownas state variables, that fully describe the system and its response to any given
set of inputs
AIM: To find state model for classical transfer function and transfer function from state model
using MATLAB.
APPARATUS: Computer with MATLAB software
THEORY:
In control engineering, a state space representation is a mathematical model of a physical

system as a set of input, output and state variables related by first-order differential equations. To
abstract from the number of inputs, outputs and states, the variables are expressed as vectors.
Additionally, if the dynamical system is linear and time invariant, the differential and algebraic
equations may be written in matrix form. The state space representation (also known as the
"time-domain approach") provides a convenient and compact way to model and analyze systems
with multiple inputs and outputs. With inputs and outputs, we would otherwise have to
write down Laplace transforms to encode all the information about a system. Unlike the
frequency domain approach, the use of the state space representation is not limited to systems
with linear components and zero initial conditions. "State space" refers to the space whose axes
are the state variables. The state of the system can be represented as a vector within that space.
State Variables:
The internal state variables are the smallest possible subset of system variables that can represent
the entire state of the system at any given time.[1] The minimum number of state variables
required to represent a given system, , is usually equal to the order of the system's defining
differential equation. If the system is represented in transfer function form, the minimum number
of state variables is equal to the order of the transfer function's denominator after it has been
reduced to a proper fraction. It is important to understand that converting a state space realization
to a transfer function form may lose some internal information about the system, and may
163
provide a description of a system which is stable, when the state-space realization is unstable at
certain points. In electric circuits, the number of state variables is often, though not always, the
same as the number of energy storage elements in the circuit such as capacitors and inductors.
The state variables defined must be linearly independent, i.e., no state variable can be written as
a linear combination of the other state variables or the system will not be able to be solved.
Modeling of state space analaysis
There are several different ways to describe a system of linear differential equations. The state-
space representation was introduced in the Introduction: System Modelingsection. For a SISO
LTI system, the state-space form is given below:
various commands used in matlab
COMMAND 1: CLC: It clears the MATLAB command window
COMMAND 2: CLEAR: it clears the MATLAB work shop variables.
COMMAND 3: DISP: Syntax – disp (variable): It displays the variable specified on command
window.
COMMAND 4: PAUSE: With this command the execution will be stopped and it waits for
the enter key.
COMMAND 5: INPUT: Syntax: Variable = Input (‘Comment’);
COMMAND 6: PERCENTAGE: It is used at the beginning of any statement to make it as a

comment in the program.
COMMAND 7: R-LOCUS: Syntax: r locus (Variable): With this we can plot the root locus of any
transfer function. That means in the above syntax the variable is nothing but a
transfer function.
COMMAND 8: BODE: Syntax: Bode (Variable): With this command we can get bode plot of
the given transfer function.
164
COMMAND 9: MARGIN: Syntax: Margin (Variable): With this command we can get gain
and phase margin of a bode plot of the given transfer function.
COMMAND10: SS: Syntax: Variable1= SS(Variable2): With this command we can get state
space model for the given transfer function. Variable 2 is a transfer function
and variable 1 holds the SS model.
COMMAND11: SS DATA:Syntax: [a,b,c,d]=SSdata (Variable):
With this command we can retrieve the a,b,c,d matrices of a state space
model. Variable holds the state space model.
PROCEDURE:
1. Write the programme in MATLAB text editor using mat lab instructions for state model
of classical transfer function and for transfer function from state model.
2. Run the programs.
3. Note down the outputs.
PROGRAM 1:
a= input ( “Enter the values of a matrix” );
b= input ( “Enter the values of b matrix” );
c= input ( “Enter the values of c matrix” );
d= input ( “Enter the values of d matrix” );
[num , den] = SS2 tf (a,b,c,d,1)
S1=tf (num(1, : ) , den );
S2=tf (num(2, : ) , den );
[num1 , den1 ] = SS2 tf (a,b,c,d,2);
S3=tf (num1 (1, : ) , den1 );
165
S4=tf (num1 (2, : ) , den1 );
DISP [S1,S2,S3,S4 ];
PROGRAM 2:
Num = input (“Enter numerator polynomial values in the form of matrix array” );
den1 = input (“Enter denominator 1 values” );
den2 = input (“Enter denominator 2 values” );
den = conv (den1,den2);
H = tf (num,den);
P = SS(H);
[a,b,c,d] = SS data(P);
RESULT:
The state model for classical transfer function and transfer function from state model
are obtained using MATLAB software.
APPLICATIONS:
 Used in multiple input multiple output systems

 Used in single input single output systems
 Applicable for time variant and time invariant systems
 Used in kalman filter
 Applicable for digital control systems
Sample quesstions:
1. Conver the given tanssfer function into state space model
2. Convert the given state space model into tarnsfer function model
3. Find state space model of a given system
4. Find the transfer function of a given systesm
5. Fina A,B,C,D for a given transfer function
166
Viva Voce quesstions
1. What is meant by state space
2. Define transfer function
3. What is the order of A,B,C,D
4. What is meantby MIMO
5. What are limitations of state space analysis
167
PROGRAMMABLE LOGICAL CONTROLLER
PREAMBLE: It is used to verify the logic gates and from this wer can control the speed of motor
these are very useful in automation systems
AIM: To implement various logics using PLC trainer
EQIPMENT REQUIRED:
1 programmable logical controller Tariner kit
PHOTOS
1) programmable logical controller
THEORY:
A programmable controller, formerly called as programmable logic controller
PLC can be defined as a solid state device member of the computer family. It is capable of
strong instructions to implement control function such as servicing timing, counting
168
arithmetic, data manipulation & communication to control industrial machines & processed.
Introduction
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) as defines a programmable logic
controller:
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the
internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions such as logic,
sequencing, timing, counting, and arithmetic to control, through digital or analog
input/output modules, various types of machines or processes.
In essence, the programmable logic controller consists of computer hardware, which is
programmed to simulate the operation of the individual logic and sequence elements that
might be contained in a bank of relays, timers, counters, and other hard-wired components.
We will adopt the initials PLC as an abbreviation for the programmable logic controller. PC Is
widely used in industry for the programmable controller, but the increasingly popular personal
computer is also abbreviated PC. To avoid confusion in our book, we will use PLC
exclusively for the programmable controller and PC for the personal computer.
The PLC was introduced around 1969 largely as a result of specifications written by the
General Motors Corporation. The automotive industry had traditionally been a large buyer
and user of electromechanical relays to control transfer lines, mechanized production lines,
and other automated systems. In an effort to reduce the cost of new relays purchased each
year, GM prepared the specifications for a “programmable logic controller” in 1968. The
requirements included:
• The device must be programmable and re-programmable.
• It must be designed to operate in an industrial environment.
• It must accept 120-V ac signals from standard pushbutton
• Its outputs must be designed to switch and continuously operate loads such as motors and
relays of 2-A rating.
• Its price and installation cost must be competitive with relay and solid —state logic devices
then in use.
Several companies saw a commercial opportunity in the GM initiative and developed various
versions of a special-purpose computer we now refer to as the PLC.
169
There are significant advantages in using a programmable logic controller rather than
conventional relays, timers, counters, and other hardware elements. These advantages include:
• Programming the PLC is easier than wiring the relay control panel. We discuss PLC
programming in one of the following subsections.
• The PLC can be reprogrammed. Conventional controls must be rewired and are often
scrapped instead.
• PLCs take less floor space then relay control panels.
• Maintenance of the OPLC is easier, and reliability is greater.
• The PLC can be connected to the plant computer systems more easily than relays can.
The following subsections describe the components, programming, and operation of the PLC.
We also survey some of its additional capabilities beyond logic control and sequencing.
Components of the PLC
A schematic diagram of a programmable logic controller is presented. The basic components
of the OPLC are the following
• Input module
• Output module
• Processor
• Memory
• Power supply
• Programming device
Fig Diagram of the programmable logic controller
170
The components are housed in a suitable cabinet designed for the industrial environment. A
commercially available PLC is shown in figure.
The input module and output module are the connections to the industrial process that in to be
controlled. The inputs to the controller are signals from limit switches, pushbuttons, sensors,
and other onloff devices. In addition, as we will describe later, larger PLCs are capable of
accepting signals from analog devices of the type modeled. The outputs from the controller
are onloff signals to operate motors, valves, and other devices required to actuate the process.
Programming the PLC
Most of the programming methods in use today for PLCs are based on the ladder logic
diagram. This diagram has been found to be very convenient for shop personnel who are
familiar with circuit diagrams because it does not require them to learn an entirely new
programming language. What is required is a means of inputting the program into the OPLC
memory:
There are various approaches for entering and interconnecting the individual logic elements.
These include:
1. Entry of the ladder logic diagram
2. Low-level computer-type languages
3. High-level computer-type languages
4. Functional blocks
5. Sequential function chart
The first method involves direct entry of the ladder logic diagram into the PLC memory. This
method requires the use of a keyboard and CRT with limited graphics capability to display
symbols representing the components and their interrelationships in the ladder logic diagram.
The PLC keyboard device is often designed with keys for each of the individual symbols.
Programming is accomplished by inserting the appropriate components into the rungs if the
ladder diagram. The components are of two basic types. Contacts and coils. Contacts are used
to represent loads such as motors, Solenoids, relays, timers, counters, etc. in effect; the
programmer inputs the ladder logic circuit diagram rung by rung into the PLC memory with
the CRT displaying the results for verification.
The second method makes use of a low-level computer-type language that parallels the ladder
logic diagram. Using the language instructions, the programmer contracts the ladder diagram
171
by specifying the various components and their relationships for each rung. Let us explain this
approach by developing an elementary PLC instruction set. Our PLC “language” will be a
composite of various manufacturers’ languages, containing perhaps fewer features than most
commercially available PLCs. We will assume that the programming device consists of a
suitable keyboard for entering the individual components on each rung of the ladder logic
diagram. A CRT capable of displaying each ladder rung, and perhaps several rungs that
precede it, is useful to verify the program.
Logic Control Elements
There are three basic elements of Logic Control, which are also called Logic Gates:
1. AND
2. OR
3. NOT
There are other elements which are derived from these three basic elements above like NOR,
and NAND, etc.
In each case, the logic gate is designed to provide a specified output value based on the values
of input(s). For both inputs and outputs, the values can be either of the two levels, the binary
values 0 or 1. For purpose of industrial control, we will define 0 (zero) to mean OFF and 1
(one) to mean ON,
Logic Gate AND
The logic gate AND outputs a value of 1 if all of the inputs are 1, and 0 otherwise. Figure
(a) illustrates the operation of a logical AND gate. If both of the switches, Xl and X2
(representing inputs), in the circuit are closed, the lamp Y (representing the output) is on. The
truth table for the AND gate is shown in Figure
172
Implement the following ladder network (shown in figure)
1. PROGRAM:
LD 0 0
OUT 20
END
LADDER NETWORK I
2. PROGRAM:
To implement the following ladder Network.
LD 0 0
AMD 01
OUT 20
LD 00
ANI 02
OUT 21
173
END
LADDER NETWORK II
3. PROGRAM:
Implement the following mechanical logic using PLC

LD 00
OR 40
ANI 01
ANI 41
OUT 40
LD 01
OUT 41
LD 40
OR 41
OUT 20
END
40
ON
R1
R1
41
ON
R2
20
(40) R1
M/C
R2
(41) 174
MECHANICAL LOGIC USING PLC
LOGIC:
The above circuit uses internal relays. There are 16 relays M & M & M. Here we use the
relays 40 & 41. Once 00 is ON & output 20 is ON permanently. Once 01 is ON, R gets off but N is
On. So 20 continues to be ON but when 01 is removed 20 gets OFF because M does not have a
feedback as mechanism as M.
RESULT: The above programs are verified using PLC
Applications:
 Used in pneumatic systems
 Used in hydraulic systems
 Used in Robotics
 Used in production systems
 Used in trafic light and signal processing systems
Sample questions:
1. Verify the logic gates using PLC

2. Write a progarme for forward motoring
3. Write a progarme for reverse motoring
4. Write a progarme for start stop push button operation
5. Verifythe following logic gates using PLC
i. NAND gate
ii. Nor gate
iii. And gate
iv. Or gate
v. Ex or gate
vi. Exnor gate
Sample Viva Voce questions:
1. What is meant by PLC
2. What is the logic of NAND
3. What is the logic of NOR
4. What is the logic of Ex-OR gate
5. What is the logic of Ex-NOR gate
175
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER
PREAMBLE: The magnetic amplifier (colloquially known as a "mag amp") is

an electromagnetic device for amplifying electrical signals. The magnetic amplifier was invented
early in the 20th century, and was used as an alternative to vacuum tube amplifiers where
robustness and high current capacity were required
AIM: To study the characteristics of magnetic amplifier.
EQIPMENT REQUIRED:
1 Magnetic Amplifier Kit Trainer kit
SNO NAME OF COMPONENT RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1. Bulb 60 watts In candensate 1
2. Multimeter Digital --- 1
PHOTOS:
1) Magnetic Amplifier Kit
176
2) Bulb
3) Digital multimeter
177
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
178
THEORY:Amplification is the control of a larger output quantity by the variation of a small
input quantity. Magnetic device used to perform such ctrl is the magnetic amplifier. The
combination of saturable reactor with rectifier is called magnetic amplifier.
Saturable reactor:- This device acts as a variable inductance connected in series with a load
across an a c power supply. It is nothing but a transformer, having two or more windings
around a core of steel core A&B has it’s own ac windings connected her in phase opposition so
that when flux moves to the right with in the upper A coil an equal flux moves to the left
with in the lower B coil with in the ctrl coil Two flux movements are in opposite direction.
There by no objectionable ac voltage is induced in the control winding.
Operation:- Gate winding is when operated sin. O&M the voltage across load is very small. But
if ac supply is increase to the extent core get saturated at MN or OP on magnetization curve,
the inductance of gate winding is reduced & voltage appears across load by passing small dc
through control windings .a definite steady MMF is applied to cause flux in the core to increase
in single direction making it more saturated and increase the o/p voltage across the load.
Magnetic Amplifier :- When Si diode are added in series with each gate winding of the
saturable reactor. It becomes self saturated reactor also called as magnetic amplifier.
Effect of connecting diode:- When AC power is first applied to the circuit small magnetizing
current flown in gate winding and produces initial flux x. during first part of second wave the
core flux raises from x to y and during reverse current , the part of y say y flux remains in core.
In succeeding cycles, the flux in core is increase to such an extent that the core operate on the
flat portion of the curve through out the entire half cycle. Thus although no direct current yet
flows in the ctrl
Limitations:
The gain available from a single stage is limited and low compared to electronic amplifiers.
Frequency response of a high gain amplifier is limited to about one-tenth the excitation
frequency, although this is often mitigated by exciting magnetic amplifiers with currents at
higher than utility frequency.[1] Solid-state amplifiers can be more compact and efficient than
magnetic amplifiers. The bias and feedback windings are not unilateral, and may couple energy
179
back from the controlled circuit into the control circuit. This complicates the design of multistage
amplifiers when compared with electronic devices.[
Principle of operation:
isually a mag amp device may resemble a transformer but the operating principle is quite
different from a transformer - essentially the mag amp is a saturable reactor. It makes use
of magnetic saturation of the core, a non-linear property of a certain class of transformer cores.
For controlled saturation characteristics the magnetic amplifier employs core materials that have
been designed to have a specificB-H curve shape that is highly rectangular, in contrast to the
slowly tapering B-H curve of softly saturating core materials that are often used in normal
transformers.
The typical magnetic amplifier consists of two physically separate but similar
transformer magnetic cores, each of which has two windings - a control winding and an AC
winding. A small DC current from a low impedance source is fed into the series-connected
control windings. The AC windings may be connected either in series or in parallel, the
configurations resulting in different types of mag amps. The amount of control current fed into
the control winding sets the point in the AC winding waveform at which either core will saturate.
In saturation, the AC winding on the saturated core will go from a high impedance state ("off")
into a very low impedance state ("on") - that is, the control current controls at which voltage the
mag amp switches "on".
A relatively small DC current on the control winding is able to control or switch large AC
currents on the AC windings. This results in current amplification.
Two magnetic cores are used because the AC current will generate high voltage in the control
windings. By connecting them in opposite phase, the two cancel each other so no current is
induced in the control circuit.
Usage in computing
Magnetic amplifiers were widely studied during the 1950s as a potential switching element
for mainframe computers. Mag amps could be used to sum several inputs in a single core, which
was useful in the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). Custom tubes could do the same, but transistors
180
could not, so the mag amp was able to combine the advantages of tubes and transistors in an era
when the latter were expensive and unreliable.
The principles of magnetic amplifiers were applied non linearly to create magnetic digital logic
gates. That era was short, lasting from the mid-1950s to about 1960, when new fabrication
techniques produced great improvements in transistors and dramatically lowered their cost. Only
one large-scale mag amp machine was put into production, theUNIVAC Solid State, but a
number of contemporary late-1950s/early-1960s computers used the technology, like the Ferranti
Orion and the English Electric KDF9, or the one-offMAGSTEC. The best known type of this
is magnetic core memory.
Usage in electric power generation
Magnetic amplifiers were extensively used in electricity power generation from the early 1960s
onwards. They provided the small signal amplification for generator automatic voltage control
(AVR)from an error signal at milliwatt (mW) level to 100-kilowatt (kW) level. This was in turn
converted by a rotating machine (exciter) to 5 megawatt (MW) level, the excitation power
required by a typical 500MW Power Plant Turbine Generator Unit. They proved durable and
reliable. Many are recorded in service through the mid-1990s and some are still in use at older
generating stations, notably in hydroelectric plants operating in northern California.
Gain A
windings on the central leg of the core , the reactor has become self saturated, entirely because
of the action caused by gate windings combined with diode.
Bias windings:- However like Cw if extra winding is provided with fixed dc bias to self
saturated reactor, then in power on condition , reactor will be unsaturated and load current is
small. If required the dc bias of bias windings can be fixed to get zero current of ctrl winding at
any desired it on the curve of load current.
181
PROCEDURE:
a) Parallel connection:-
1. Make the connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Make power on to the circuit .
3. Keep Cw dc supply and Bw dc supply to zero .note load voltage.
4. Adjust Bw dc supply to get minimum load voltage(VL).
5. Now slowly increase the Cw dc supply in steps and note the ctrl current and load
current .
6. Plot the graph of load current against control current .
I L
7. Calculate the gain of amplifier A= .
I c
V 2 L / RL
8. Calculate power gain =
VD C I DC
Observations:
Series Connection:-
S.NO IC (ma) VDC(v) VL(v) IL=VL
RL
A= P=
182
Parallel Connection:- RL=156 .
S.NO IC (ma) VDC(v) VL(v) IL=VL
RL
Gain A
windings on the central leg of the core , the reactor has become self saturated, entirely
because of the action caused by gate windings combined with diode.
Bias windings:- However like Cw if extra winding is provided with fixed dc bias to self
saturated reactor, then in power on condition , reactor will be unsaturated and load current
is small. If required the dc bias of bias windings can be fixed to get zero current of ctrl winding
at any desired it on the curve of load current.
RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of Magnetic Amplifier determined and its gain is calculated.
SERIES PARALLEL
A= A=
P= P=
183
APPLICATIONS:
Magnetic amplifiers were important as modulation and control amplifiers in the early
development of voice transmission by radio.[2] A magnetic amplifier was used as voice
modulator for a 2 kilowatt Alexanderson alternator, and magnetic amplifiers were used in the
keying circuits of large high-frequency alternators used for radio communications. Magnetic
amplifiers were also used to regulate the speed of Alexanderson alternators to maintain the
accuracy of the transmitted radio frequency.[2] Magnetic amplifiers were used to control large
high-power alternators by turning them on and off for telegraphy or to vary the signal for voice
modulation. The alternator's frequency limits were rather low to where a frequency multiplier
had to be utilized to generate higher radio frequencies than the alternator was capable of
producing. Even so, early magnetic amplifiers incorporating powdered-iron cores were incapable
of producing radio frequencies above approximately 200 kHz. Other core materials, such as
ferrite cores and oil-filled transformers, would have to be developed to allow the amplifier to
produce higher frequencies.
The ability to control large currents with small control power made magnetic amplifiers useful
for control of lighting circuits, for stage lighting and for advertising signs. Saturable reactor
amplifiers were used for control of power to industrial furnaces [2] Magnetic amplifiers are still
used in some arc welders.
Small magnetic amplifiers were used for radio tuning indicators, control of small motor and
cooling fan speed, control of battery chargers.
Magnetic amplifiers were used extensively as the switching element in early switched-mode
(SMPS) power supplies,[3] as well as in lighting control. Semiconductor-based solid-state
switches have largely superseded them, though recently there has been some regained interest in
using mag amps in compact and reliable switching power supplies. PCATX power supplies often
use mag amps for secondary side voltage regulation. Cores designed specifically for switch mode
power supplies are currently manufactured by several large electromagnetics companies,
including Metglas and Mag-Inc.
Magnetic amplifiers were used by locomotives to detect wheel slip, until replaced by Hall
Effect current transducers. The cables from two traction motors passed through the core of the
device. During normal operation the resultant flux was zero as both currents were the same and
184
in opposite directions. The currents would differ during wheel slip, producing a resultant flux
that acted as the Control winding, developing a voltage across a resistor in series with the AC
winding which was sent to the wheel slip correction circuits.
Magnetic amplifiers can be used for measuring high DC-voltages without direct connection to
the high voltage and are therefore still used in the HVDC-technique. The current to be measured
is passed through the two cores, possibly by a solid bus bar. There is almost no voltage drop in
this bus bar. The output signal, proportional to the ampere turns in the control current bus bar, is
derived from the alternating excitation voltage of the magnetic amplifier, there is no voltage
created or induced on the bus bar. The output signal has only a magnetic connection with the bus
bar so the bus may be, quite safely, at any (EHT) voltage with respect to the instrumentation.
Instrumentation magnetic amplifiers are commonly found on space craft where a clean
electromagnetic environment is highly desirable.[citation needed]
The German Kriegsmarine made extensive use of the magnetic amplifiers. They were used for
the master stable element systems, for slow moving transmission for controlling guns, directors
and rangefinders and train and elevation controls. Magnetic amplifiers were used in aircraft
systems (avionics) before the advent of high reliability semiconductors. They were important in
implementing early autoland systems and Concorde made use of the technology for the control
of its engine air intakes before development of a system using digital electronics. Magnetic
amplifiers were used in stabilizer controls of V2 rockets.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS:
1. Draw the charcterstics of series magnetic amplfier

2. Draw the charcterstics of parallal magnetic amplfier
3. Draw the charcterstics of series parllal magnetic amplfier
4. Draw the charcterstics between load voltage and control voltage
5. Draw the cahrctstics between load and control current
1. Waht is meant by amplifier

2. Define magnetic amplifier
3. What are types of magnetic amplfiers
4. Whch type of amplifier is better
5. give the differnces between amplifiers
185
PSPICE SIMULATION OF OP-AMP BASED INTEGRATOR & DIFFERENTIATOR
CIRCUITS
PREAMBLE: By introducing electrical reactance into the feedback loops of op-amp amplifier
circuits, we can cause the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time. Drawing
their names from their respective calculus functions, the integrator produces a voltage output
proportional to the product (multiplication) of the input voltage and time; and
the differentiator (not to be confused with differential) produces a voltage output proportional to
the input voltage's rate of change.
AIM: To simulate the integrator & differentiator circuits by using PSPICE.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: PSPICE – Personal Computer Simulated Program

with Integrated Circuit Emphasis.
a) Simulation of INTEGRATOR CIRCUIT Using PSPICE:
SYNTAX USED:
REPRESENTATION
S.NO TYPE OF SOURCE DECLARATION FORMAT
OF SOURCE
STEP ( Time at a Point) (Voltage at a

1. STEP RESPONSE PWL
Point)
2. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS .TRAN .TRAN TStep Tstop [TStart TMax] [UIC]
3. PROBE STATEMENT .PROBE It is a wave form analyzer
.PLOT (Output Variables) {(Lower limit

4. PLOT STATEMENT .PLOT
Value), (Upper Limit Value)}
THORY:
186
As before, the negative feedback of the op-amp ensures that the inverting input will be held at 0
volts (the virtual ground). If the input voltage is exactly 0 volts, there will be no current through
the resistor, therefore no charging of the capacitor, and therefore the output voltage will not
change. We cannot guarantee what voltage will be at the output with respect to ground in this
condition, but we can say that the output voltage will be constant.
However, if we apply a constant, positive voltage to the input, the op-amp output will fall
negative at a linear rate, in an attempt to produce the changing voltage across the capacitor
necessary to maintain the current established by the voltage difference across the resistor.
Conversely, a constant, negative voltage at the input results in a linear, rising (positive) voltage
at the output. The output voltage rate-of-change will be proportional to the value of the input
voltage.
The formula for determining voltage output for the integrator is as follows:
187
One application for this device would be to keep a "running total" of radiation exposure, or
dosage, if the input voltage was a proportional signal supplied by an electronic radiation detector.
Nuclear radiation can be just as damaging at low intensities for long periods of time as it is at
high intensities for short periods of time. An integrator circuit would take both the intensity
(input voltage magnitude) and time into account, generating an output voltage representing total
radiation dosage.
Another application would be to integrate a signal representing water flow, producing a signal
representing total quantity of water that has passed by the flowmeter. This application of an
integrator is sometimes called a totalizer in the industrial instrumentation trade.
DATA REQUIRED FOR DRAWING CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Draw an Integrator Circuit Using OP-AMP. For this circuit apply the Step Response
whose values are T1=0, V1=0V, T2=1NS, V2=-1V, T3=1mS, V3=-1V,
T4=1.0001mS, V4=1V, T5=2mS, V5=1V, T6=2.0001mS, V6=-1V, T7=3mS, V7=-1V,
T8=3.0001mS, V8=1V, T9=4mS, V9=1V respectively. It consists of resistances and Capacitors

whose Values are R1=2.5KΩ, Rf=1MΩ, Rx=2.5KΩ and RL=100KΩ and the capacitance value as
0.1μF. Plot the transient response from 0 to 4mseconds with an increment of 50μsecond.
188
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROGRAM:
VIN1 1 0 PWL(0 0 1NS -1V 1MS -1V 1.0001MS 1V 2MS 1V +2.0001MS -1V 3MS -1V 3.0001MS 1V
4MS 1V)
R1 1 2 2.5K
RF 2 4 1MEG
RX 3 0 2.5K
RL 4 0 100K
C1 2 4 0.1UF
XA1 2 3 4 0 OPAMP
.SUBCKT OPAMP 1 2 7 4
RI 1 2 2MEG
GB 4 3 1 2 0.1M
R1 3 4 10K
C1 3 4 1.5619UF
EA 4 5 3 4 2E+5
189
RO 5 7 75
.ENDS OPAMP
.TRAN 50US 4MS
.PLOT TRAN V(4) V(1)
.PROBE
.END
OUTPUT:
RESULT: Analysis of Integrator circuit has been successfully completed.
b) Simulation of DIFFERENTIATOR CIRCUIT Using PSPICE:
SYNTAX USED:
REPRESENTATION
S.NO TYPE OF SOURCE DECLARATION FORMAT
OF SOURCE
STEP ( Time at a Point) (Voltage at a

1. STEP RESPONSE PWL
Point)
2. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS .TRAN .TRAN TStep Tstop [TStart TMax] [UIC]
3. PROBE STATEMENT .PROBE It is a wave form analyzer
.PLOT (Output Variables) {(Lower limit

4. PLOT STATEMENT .PLOT
Value), (Upper Limit Value)}
THORY:
190
The dv/dt fraction is a calculus expression representing the rate of voltage change over time. If
the DC supply in the above circuit were steadily increased from a voltage of 15 volts to a voltage
of 16 volts over a time span of 1 hour, the current through the capacitor would most likely
be very small, because of the very low rate of voltage change (dv/dt = 1 volt / 3600 seconds).
However, if we steadily increased the DC supply from 15 volts to 16 volts over a shorter time
span of 1 second, the rate of voltage change would be much higher, and thus the charging current
would be much higher (3600 times higher, to be exact). Same amount of change in voltage, but
vastly different rates of change, resulting in vastly different amounts of current in the circuit.
To put some definite numbers to this formula, if the voltage across a 47 µF capacitor was
changing at a linear rate of 3 volts per second, the current "through" the capacitor would be (47
µF)(3 V/s) = 141 µA.
We can build an op-amp circuit which measures change in voltage by measuring current through
a capacitor, and outputs a voltage proportional to that current:
The right-hand side of the capacitor is held to a voltage of 0 volts, due to the "virtual ground"
effect. Therefore, current "through" the capacitor is solely due to change in the input voltage. A
steady input voltage won't cause a current through C, but a changing input voltage will.
Capacitor current moves through the feedback resistor, producing a drop across it, which is the
same as the output voltage. A linear, positive rate of input voltage change will result in a steady
191
negative voltage at the output of the op-amp. Conversely, a linear, negative rate of input voltage
change will result in a steady positive voltage at the output of the op-amp. This polarity inversion
from input to output is due to the fact that the input signal is being sent (essentially) to the
inverting input of the op-amp, so it acts like the inverting amplifier mentioned previously. The
faster the rate of voltage change at the input (either positive or negative), the greater the voltage
at the output.
The formula for determining voltage output for the differentiator is as follows:
Applications for this, besides representing the derivative calculus function inside of an analog
computer, include rate-of-change indicators for process instrumentation. One such rate-of-
change signal application might be for monitoring (or controlling) the rate of temperature change
in a furnace, where too high or too low of a temperature rise rate could be detrimental. The DC
voltage produced by the differentiator circuit could be used to drive a comparator, which would
signal an alarm or activate a control if the rate of change exceeded a pre-set level.
In process control, the derivative function is used to make control decisions for maintaining a
process at setpoint, by monitoring the rate of process change over time and taking action to
prevent excessive rates of change, which can lead to an unstable condition. Analog electronic
controllers use variations of this circuitry to perform the derivative function.
On the other hand, there are applications where we need precisely the opposite function,
called integration in calculus. Here, the op-amp circuit would generate an output voltage
proportional to the magnitude and duration that an input voltage signal has deviated from 0 volts.
Stated differently, a constant input signal would generate a certain rate of change in the output
voltage: differentiation in reverse. To do this, all we have to do is swap the capacitor and resistor
in the previous circuit:
192
DATA REQUIRED FOR DRAWING CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Draw a Differentiator Circuit Using OP-AMP. For this circuit apply the Step Response
whose values are T1=0, V1=0V, T2=1MS, V2=1V, T3=2mS, V3=0V,
T4=3mS, V4=1V, T5=4mS, V5=0V respectively. It consists of resistances and Capacitors whose
Values are R1=100Ω, Rf=10KΩ, Rx=10KΩ,RL=100KΩ and the capacitance value as 0.4μF. Plot the
transient response from 0 to 4mseconds with an increment of 50μsecond.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROGRAM:
VIN1 1 0 PWL(0 0 1MS 1V 2MS 0V 3MS 1V 4MS 0V)
R1 1 2 100
RF 3 4 10K
RX 5 0 10K
RL 4 0 100K
C1 2 3 0.4UF
193
XA1 3 5 4 0 OPAMP
.SUBCKT OPAMP 1 2 7 4
RI 1 2 2MEG
GB 4 3 1 2 0.1M
R1 3 4 10K
C1 3 4 1.5619UF
EA 4 5 3 4 2E+5
RO 5 7 75
.ENDS OPAMP
.TRAN 10US 4MS
.PLOT TRAN V(4) V(1)
.PROBE
.END
OUTPUT:
RESULT: Analysis of Integrator circuit has been successfully completed.
APPLICATIONS:
 Used in current to volatge converter

 Used in current to current converter
 Used in volatge to current converter
 Used in signal multiplication
 Used in feed back systems
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Write a progarm for integartor using PSPICE

2. Write a progarm for differntiator using PSPICE
3. Write a progarm for differntiator and integartor using PSPICE
194
4. Design a integartor circuit consists of resistances and Capacitors whose Values are
R1=100Ω, Rf=10KΩ, Rx=10KΩ,RL=100KΩ and the capacitance value as 0.4μF. Plot the
5. Design a differntiator circuit consists of resistances and Capacitors whose Values are
R1=100Ω, Rf=10KΩ, Rx=10KΩ,RL=100KΩ and the capacitance value as 0.4μF. Plot the
1. Define integartor
2. Difine differntaiator
3. Exapnad PSPICE
4. Define current to volatge converter
5. Define voltage to current converter
195

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CONTROL SYSTEM AND SIMULATION LAB

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

AURORA’S SCINTIFIC, TECHNOLOGICAL AND RESEARCH ACADEMY

Bandlaguda, Hyderabad – 500005. Ph: 040 -244440840,65245611.

Stepper ,process control simulator

 Power must be switched-OFF while making any connections.

Before leaving the lab

 Place the stools under the lab bench.

1. Time Response of Second order system

2. Study of characteristics of Synchros

3. Effect of feedback on DC servo motor

4. Transfer function of DC motor

5. Effect of P, PD, PI, PID controller on a second order systems

6. Study of Lag leg compensation

7. Characteristics of magnetic amplifier

8. Root locus plot, Bode plot from MATLAB

10. Characteristics of AC servo motor

11. Programmable logic controller

1. Simulation of OP – AMP based integrator and differentiator

S.No Name of the Experiment Unit No Text /Reference

15 State space model for classical transfer function using 8

2 2 1 Transfer function of DC motor JNTUH

Temperature control using PID

Transfer function of DC Generator

Effect of feedback on DC servo motor

Characteristics of AC servo motor

Study of characteristics of Synchros

Time Response of Second order system JNTUH

Effect of P, PD, PI,PID controller on a second order systems

Linear system analysis(Time domain analysis, Error Analysis)

Stability analysis( Bode Plot) of Linear time

Stability analysis( Root locus) of Linear time

Study of Lag-lead compensation JNTUH

State space model for classical transfer function

Programmable logic controller- study and

Characteristics of Magnetic amplifier JNTUH

PSPICE Simulation of OP-AMP based integrator

Block diagram reduction technique using

9.1. Introduction to control system lab

Equipments used in the lab:

1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Vertical deflection system respectively.

vertical deflection of the dot shows the value of the input.

generates a ramp voltage (saw tooth waveform) . Refer fig. 13.

CRO controls from the front panel

electrons emerging from the gun

to the vertical and horizontal deflection plates.

vertical plates to deflect the beam vertically by one division.

of the observed signal.

slope of the triggering waveform.

start the sweep

Few experiments related with CRO:

To measure voltage and frequency of an ac signal

Voltage measurement To measure the voltage of an ac waveform, connect the ac

Suppose volts / div is at 1V scale then Vpp = 4 div x 1 V = 4V

and Vm = 2div x 1V = 2V.

The effective value is V effec = V rms= Vm X 0.7. = 1.4 V

Hence frequency (F) = 1 / T = 1 / 2msec = 0.5 kHz = 500 Hz.

To measure frequency ratio and measure phase difference of 2 waveforms using

Measurement of Frequency Ratio

to the two channels and Oscilloscope is kept in X-Y mode

TV Number of loops touching vertical line fH 2

lissajous figures for various frequency ratios are drawn.