Energy and Buildings, 3 (1981) 31 - 47
© Elsevier Sequoia S.A., Lausanne -- Printed in the Netherlands
Heat Transfer Processes in Solar Collectors
E. A R A N O V I T C H
Joint Research Centre, lspra (Italy)
INTRODUCTION
The solar collector is the main c o m p o n e n t
of a solar system. It transforms radiant energy
from the sun, in the spectral range 0.3 - 3 pm,
into usable heat (Fig. 1). The density of
fluxes involved is low, at a m a x i m u m of the
order o f 1 kW/m 2 (1000 times less than in the
case of nuclear reactors). Heat losses depend
essentially o n temperature levels. A black
plate, at 70 °C, put in an ambience at 10 °C,
will lose a b o u t 1 kW/m 2. The useful extracted
energy will be the difference b e t w e e n the ab-
sorbed energy and the energy losses:
(USEFUL ENERGY) = (ABSORBED E N E R G Y ) -
(ENERGY LOSSES)
Only carefully designed collectors which mini-
mize the heat losses will show an acceptable
efficiency for practical applications. The first
part o f this lecture is devoted to the descrip-
tion and the evaluation of the thermal pro-
cesses concerned with solar collectors in order
that the user m a y b e c o m e familiar, either
Wlm2.)jm
2000
1500
\
-g}00 ~ -
500~
UV • V IR
I
0.5 1 1.S 2 9.5 jam
Fig. 1. Spectral distribution o f solar radiation at sea
level (very similar to a blackbody spectrum at 6000
K).
31
with the limitations, or the potential improve-
ments which can be expected from solar sys-
tems.
The text deals principally with non-focus-
ing flat-plate collectors, which are mostly
used for housing applications. Such collectors
have the advantage of using b o t h direct and
diffuse radiation (diffuse radiation m a y ac-
c o u n t for 50% of the total radiation in most
Central and North-European regions).
BASIC SCHEMA OF A FLAT-PLATE COLLECTOR
The essential parts of a flat-plate collector
are represented in Fig. 2. They are:
- the " b l a c k " absorber plate which transfers
the absorbed energy to a fluid;
- the transparent cover, the purpose of which
is to limit heat losses through the so-called
"greenhouse effect";
the thermal insulation which limits back-
losses.
O TRANSPAREN
I C O V E ~
FLUIDTUBE
FRONTLOSSES
(RADtATION+NATURAL
CONVEOT.O.
ABSORBERP L
y/
A ~
'"SULA"ON
I BACK LOSSES
EDGE LOSSES
Fig. 2. Schema o f a fiat plate collector. The green-
house effect is very important for the efficiency o f
the system.
 32

The solar collector has to deal with two dis- Wlm2 ym

tinct processes:
the absorption of radiant energy, which 1500 SOLARSPECTRUM
¢~6000¢'K
requires the highest possible transmission
coefficient, ~, for the transparent cover and
the highest possible absorption coefficient, 1000 /
a, for the absorber plate. The effectiveparam- 1000 / { W/rn2,pm
eter will be the product (a~);
- the loss o f energy in the infra-red spectrum
due to:
a) radiation losses between the absorber plate o.s • II s 1o Is 20 ~
and the transparent cover;
Fig. 3. Spectral distribution of black body radiation.
b) natural convection losses between the ab-
sorber plate and the transparent cover;
c) conduction losses through the back-insula- By integrating Planck's law over all wave-
tion and the edges. lengths, the total energy emitted b y a black-
It can be seen that the three modes of heat b o d y is found to be:
transfer: radiation; natural convection; and
conduction are involved here. They will suc-
E = JExdk = aT 4 (3)
cessively be dealt with in the next sections.
o
where o is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and
HEAT LOSSES DUE TO RADIATION
equal to 5.6697 × 10 - s W / m 2 K .
Thermal radiation is emitted b y bodies In the case o f a Lambertonian or a diffuse
because of their temperature. By definition a surface, the blackbody's emissive power is
b l a c k b o d y is a perfect absorber o f radiation. related to the blackbody's intensity, Ib, by:
It is an ideal concept since all substances will
E = ~Ib (4)
reflect some radiation. A b l a c k b o d y is also a
perfect emitter o f thermal radiation. This equation is also valid for monochromatic
The wavelength distribution o f the radia- radiation:
tion for a b l a c k b o d y is given b y Planck's law:
Eh = ~'Ibh (5)
C1
In the case of a grey surface an emissivity
Ek = kS(eC29"T - - 1) (1)
coefficient, e, and an absorption coefficient,
where a, are introduced. For a given wavelength k,
Kirchoff's law states that:
C1 = 3.7405 × 10 - i s W/m 2
a;~ = e~ (6)
C2 = 0 . 0 1 4 3 8 7 9 mK
The energy emitted b y a grey surface, defined
Ex = energy per unit area and per unit time by e, at a temperature of T K is equal to
for a given wavelength
eat 4
k = wavelength, m
The heat transfer between t w o infinite paral-
T = absolute temperature, K. lel planes, at temperatures T1 and T2, acting
The wavelength corresponding to the maxi- as grey surfaces defined b y el and e2 is:
m u m intensity of b l a c k b o d y radiation is given a ( T 4 -- T~)
b y Wien's law (Fig. 3):
qr 1/el + lie2 -- 1 (7)
2897.8
~tmax - - #m (2)
T The global emittance, eg, between the t w o
It can be noted that for a temperature o f planes is:
6 0 0 0 K the spectral distribution o f b l a c k b o d y
radiation is near the surface temperature o f
the sun. ez = (8)
1/el + lie2 -- 1
 33

Example 1. with an acceptable approximation by equa-

What is the global emittance of two parallel tion 7. The global emittance is then of the
planes having respectively emissivity coef- Order of 0.85. It will be seen how this value
ficients o f 0.96 and 0.87? can be reduced with selective surfaces.
What is the heat transfer when these two
planes are respectively at 85 °C and 40 °C?
HEAT LOSSES BY NATURAL CONVECTION
ez = 0.87 Tz = 273 + 40 = 313 K
ez = 0.96 Tz = 273 + 85 = 358 K Heat losses by natural convection from the
absorber plate to the transparent cover are
The global emittance is: characterized by a Nusselt number, Nu:
1 V~.d
eg = - 0.84 Nu - (9)
1/0.87 + 1/0.96 -- 1
The heat transfer is:
where
Q = (0.84)(5.67) × 1 0 - s [ ( 3 5 8 ) 4 - (313) 4 ]
[]ca -- heat transfer coefficient between ab-
= 325 W/m z. sorber plate and cover
We have a similar situation in a solar col- d = plate spacing
lector, considering the radiation transfer
between the absorber plate and a trans- ~,~ = thermal conductivity of air (Fig. 5).
parent cover in glass or in plastic films, This Nusselt number can be expressed as a
because such materials behave as grey bodies function of the Grashof number, Gr, and of
for infra-red radiation (Fig. 4). It is only the slope s:
because o f these special selective properties
t h a t the "greenhouse e f f e c t " can be achieved g~da A T gda A T
Gr - - (10)
and t h a t solar collectors can hope to attain v2 ~2 T
acceptable efficiencies (for instance poly-
ethylene remains transparent to infra-red where
radiation).
g = gravitational constant
In conclusion we shall assume t h a t the 1
heat transfer between the absorber plate and -- expansion coefficient; ~ -~-
the transparent cover can be represented T
A T = temperature difference between plates
°.°
~,oo~.] I mmmm I I I I t ~ L I I ~ 1 1 v = kinematic viscosity of air (Fig. 5)
-..ll 1. ; ; ; i ; ; ~'¢'T~VP~"
£kt vv i I I i ]
~MW.AR"IS ""S T = average absolute temperature of air
~m.I
~"1
1 Ill~mlmi
I I 1 ~
I I I /I I I
I I I I I I I
I I
I I ,I ~/t -L2o l between plates, K .
i461 1 I~WtNG0'wl6~Assl
II I l l l m l I I I ] ~ I I
I 1 , IvI .,o
(Some authors use the Rayleigh number, Ra,
20LULTR~.V~L~ I I I I I
o l V ~
I ''~
r
I1111 ,.[ai3Ei [[ IILt'It:"g which is equal to the product of the Grashof
0.2 0./. 0.6 0.6 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6" 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.& number by the Prandtl number. In the case of
,a) WAVELENGTH (MICRONS)
gases the Prandtl n u m b e r can be considered
constant and equal to 0.7 and there is no
0.0
,oo II III I necessity to introduce it as a variable.)
$" 80 E l l ILl I .lo
~, I I 'M#LAW" S MI'.S
6c[I L Ill, C, 1 .2o ;
Example 2.
.3o ~ Calculate the Grashof number in the case
~ol[lll I " I[lll I P
[~i I u ILl ~WmoOw. GLASS .SO o f an absorber plate at a temperature o f

o[..[Wl
'.
~'
I J I [] [I I
~N/.~[
'~1 /I~ J
t , , / , . . ~ . ,..., ='.. :.. L.L d. .....
1.0
70 °C, a glass cover at a temperature of 40 °C
3 4 5 6 ? $ 9 10 11 12 13 1,; 15~
with a spacing o f 2.5 cm.
(b) WAVELENGTH (MICRONS)
g = 981 cm/s 2
Fig. 4. Absorption spectrum for "Mylar" W-2 film
(a) low range, (b) high range. d = 2.5 cm
34

-0x 102cm2/~ £x104 W/cmoC

Nu
16

25 -- 3,5 9

cc
4

N 2O
2

0
I I HORZIONTAL
16

}
1S

4
~3 J I
5Q 100 TEHPERAllJREoc 2
45 °
Fig. 5. Kinematic viscosity and thermal conductivity I I I
"0
o f air.

16--

/~ T = 70 - - 4 0 = 30 °C
70 + 40
T- + 273 = 328 K
2
v = 17.5 X 1 0 - 2 cm2/s I I I
10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 _'~r
(981)(2.5)s(30)
Gr = = 45670. Fig. 6. Natural c o n v e c t i o n in inclined cells.
(17.5 × 10-2)~(328)
Nu = 0.062(Gr) °'s27 (14)
The heat transfer coefficient U~n between the
absorber plate and the cover plate can be cal- for s = 9 0 ° and 1.5 × 105 < Gr < 107
culated if the function which relates the
Nusselt number, Nu, to the Grashof number, Dropkin-Somerscales recommend:
Gr, and the slope, s, is known. A great
Nu = [0.060 - - 0.017 (s/90)] (Gr) 11s (15)
n u m b e r o f experimental correlations have
been proposed for the calculation o f heat with Gr > 2.105
transfer by natural convection in closed
inclined cells. It can be noted t h a t there
exists a dispersion o f the order of 20% It can be observed that the Dropkin-Somer-
between the different formulas recommended scales formula gives somewhat lower values
by authors such as Tabor, de Graaf, van der than the Tabor formulas which might be con-
Held, Dropkin, Somerscales, etc. sidered more reliable because t h e y were ex-
In Fig. 6 are represented correlations perimentally established with air, whereas the
recommended by Tabor and Dropkin-Somer- former was established with liquids.
scales for different inclinations. Moreover, the Dropkin-Somerscales for-
Tabor recommends: mula is recommended for Grashof numbers
Nu = 0.152(Gr) °'2sl (11) superior to 1.5 × 10 5 where, as in solar col-
lectors, the Grashof number between absorber
fors=0and104 <~Gr<107 plate and glass cover is generally inferior to
10 5.
Nu = 0.093(Gr) °'sl° (12) On the other hand, the Dropkin-Somerscales
formula has a great merit for simplicity and
for s = 45 ° and 104 < Gr < 1 0 7
can easily be used in design applications. So,
after changing the values of the constants in
Nu = 0.033(Gr) °'ssl (13)
order to be nearer to the values recommended
for s = 90 ° and 1.5 X 104 < Gr < (1.5)105 by Tabor, one obtains:
 35

Nu = [0.078 -- 0.026 (s/90)] (Gr) l/a (16) This example shows that for non-selective sur-
faces, heat losses by radiation are predom-
with 104 < Gr < 105 inant over heat losses by natural convection.

Example 3. Determination o f the spacing between the

Referring to example 1, calculate with
equation 15 the Nusselt n u m b e r and the heat
transfer coefficient, U~n, assuming a slope of
45 °.
Gr = 45670
Nu -- [0.078 -- 0.026(45/90)] (45670) z/a
= 1.67
s = 45 °
Nu.X (1.67)(2.81) × 10 - 4
Ucn -- m
d 2.5
= 1.88 X 1 0 - 4 W / c m 2 °C
;~=~ = 2.81 × 10 -4 W/cm °C
One o f the other advantages o f such a for-
mula is that formally the heat transfer, [fen,
is then independent o f the spacing, d. Combi-
nation of equations 9, 10 and 16 gives:
= [ l/S
Ucn { v27~Ti-~ I [0.078 -- 0.026 (s/90)] ×
X'(/', ~ZlS (17)
It can be shown that the first term between
brackets is only slightly d e p e n d e n t on temp-
erature in the range of applications for solar
collectors, so a further simplification is intro-
duced by assuming that it is a constant and
finally the heat transfer coefficient is repre-
sented by:
Ucn -~ [1 -- 0.33 (S/90)]AT z/s (18)
where Ucn is expressed in W/m 2 °C.
The heat transfer per unit surface is then:
qcn = UenAT = [1 - - 0 . 3 3 (s./90)]Z~T 4Is (19)
absorber plate and the glass cover
F r o m a fabrication point of view the
manufacturer will be interested in reducing
the spacing, d, between the glass cover and
the absorber plate. For Grashof numbers
inferior to 2000 it can be assumed that air
remains stagnant and that heat losses are due.
only to conduction through the air.
(Xj,)AT
q - (2O)
e
For Grashof numbers superior to 1 0 0 0 0 we
assume that heat losses vary little with the
spacing and can be represented by eqn. (19).
For Grashof numbers between 2000 and
10000, there exists a transition zone where
correlations are not clearly defined. The heat
losses, expressed as a function of the spacing,
d, will be represented by eqn. (20) for
( 2 0 0 0 T ~ 2 ) 1/3
Gr < 2000 that is d < gAT
and by equation (19) for
( 1 0 000To2 ) 113
Gr > 10 000 that is d > gAT
An example is shown in Fig. 7. In practical
cases a value of d equal to 2.5 cm seems rea-
sonable.
qcn wlm2 Tp= 70°C = =4_~0
200
_ TO-40°C

-- STA6NANT~~._ TRANSITION CONVECTION

Example 4, 100

Assuming a slope o f 45 ° and referring to

example 1, what is the heat transfer by natural Gr=2000 6r.10000
convection between the two planes?

qcn = [1 -- 0.33(45/90)] (85 - - 4 0 ) 4/3 I I

1 2 SPACtN0 cm

= 96 W/m 2 . Fig. 7. H e a t t r a n s f e r b y n a t u r a l c o n v e c t i o n .
36

BACK LOSSES AND EDGE LOSSES design purposes, to use a single formula which
accounts globally for radiative and convective
Back losses and edge losses, for conve- losses.
nience, are generally characterized b y a single Two correlations proposed by Tabor and
heat transfer coefficient, Ub. In a poorly MacAdams are represented in Fig. 8. The
designed solar collector, the edge losses can linear equation for MacAdams:
become o f significant importance (in the case,
for instance, o f a metallic contact between Ua = 5.7 + 3.8V (25)
the absorber plate and the external casing). where
In a properly designed collector the edge
losses should be kept inferior to 5% o f the Ua = heat transfer coefficient from cover to
total losses and the heat transfer coefficient, the ambient air (W/m 2 °C)
Ub, can be represented with an acceptable V = wind velocity {m/s)
approximation b y :
fits well with the values recommended b y
Vb -~ w (21) Tabor, when the wind velocity is in the range
eb o f 2 - 5 m/s.
where
~a(w/m2oC)
)'b = thermal conductivity of the insulating 50
material
e b = thickness o f the insulating material.
~ ~AC AOA~
The corresponding losses are then:
I
qb "" hb(Tp -- Ta) (22)

fl

HEAT LOSSES FROM THE TRANSPARENT 1 2 3 ; S 6 7 S Vmls

COVER TO THE AMBIENT AIR
F i g . 8. H e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t f r o m c o v e r t o a m b i a n t
a~

The heat losses from the transparent cover

to the ambient air are due to radiative and
convective exchanges which are affected b y
the wind velocity.
Radiative exchanges are not only influ-
enced b y the ground and surrounding condi-
tions (snow, reflective windows, etc.), b u t
also b y long wave radiation from the sky;
especially in the case of a very clear sky when
the "sky t e m p e r a t u r e " can be significantly
lower than the ambient air temperature.
Swinbank relates sky temperature to the
local air temperature b y :
FIN AND BOND EFFECT
An important number of solar collectors
are designed on the principle of an absorber
plate clamped or b o n d e d to fluid tubes as
seen in Fig. 9. In such a structure there will be
a temperature difference between the average
plate temperature, Tp, and the fluid tempera-
ture, Tm, leading to a loss of efficiency.
Considering an element dx, an energy bal-
ance gives the following differential equation:

Tsky = 0.0552T~/~5 (K) (23) d2T

e k - : - - - ~ + Cs - - U I ( T - - T a ) = 0 (26)
(ix-
Whillier recommends a simpler formula:
with the following b o u n d a r y conditions:
Tsky = T ~ -- 6 (24)
dT
Some conclusive experimental work on this --~ = 0 whenx=0 (27)
subject is still lacking. dx
Except in very special cases (involving dT
- - k = U~(T - - rim ) when x = L (28)
snow for instance) it is recommended, for dx
 37
bX
Introducing the average value Tp of T
l"
ABSORBERPLATE F t----~
BOND~ (Ix Tp = l ~ T d x (31)
-'~FLUID TUBE
LoJ

Illsdx St " Ut (T-To)dx one obtains finally:

F' = ¢. -- U,(Tp -- T.)

I
.I I
~, -- Ul(Tm -- 7'.)

tanh mL
X x+dx = , ~ (32)
Xm
m L [1 + ( ~ ) tanh mL ]

lI-12 " I t - l , It should be n o t e d that ¢, -- UI(Tp -- Ta)

-.<~-~) ..x(~)..,, .[U,,T-To,-,,],. represents the useful energy extracted per
unit surface and 4, -- UI(Tm -- T,) represents
d2T the useful energy which would have been ex-
IT,. tracted if the absorber plate were at the tem-
perature Tm of the fluid. So the ratio of these
T-TIn20f - -
~ 0
two terms is equal to an efficiency factor F',
sl 700w/m2 related to the fin and bond effect. The stan-
10--
dard fin efficiency factor for straight fins is
given b y :
0 L x
tanh m L
Fig. 9. Fin and bond effect. F - (33)
mL
L = length of fin Combination with equation (32) gives:
e = thickness o f fin F
F' - (34)
x = abscissa 1 +/3F
with
T = temperature o f fin, function of x
LU~
Tp = average temperature o f fin - (35)
e Ubd
T m = temperature of fluid
T a = ambient temperature If Ubd = 0% the thermal resistance due to the
bond is null and the efficiency factor F ' i s
U1 = heat transfer coefficient b e t w e e n ab-
equal t o the fin efficiency F. Experience
sorber plate and ambient air
shows that a simble clamping or wiring of the
Ubd = heat transfer coefficient for the bond fluid tubes to the absorber plate can result in
between absorber plate and fluid t u b e an important loss of performance.
4, = absorber solar radiation per unit surface
Example 5.
k = thermal conductivity of the fin. Calculate the efficiency factor, F, and the
factor F ' for an aluminium fm with the fol-
Integration o f eqn. (26) gives: lowing characteristics:
¢, -- Uz(T -- T,) cosh rnx L = 10 cm, e = 0.1 cm, Uz = 6 W / m 2 °C, ~ =
2 W/cm °C, Ubd = 6000 Wire 2 °C
• u, -112L °I °×1°-' ] ~2
(29)
with m 2 - UI (30)
ke = 0.548
38

tanh 0.548 Fix a given value of q~, then calculate Tc from

F - - 0.91 eqn. (32). and then Tp from eqn. (33); the
0.548 value of qb Can then be determined from eqn.
(34) and ql from eqn. (35). The calculation
L U1 10 × 6
can be renewed for other values of q~ and the
- - - - - 0.1
eUbd 0.1 × 6000 functions {71, {~r, qcn, qb of the variable Tp carl
be obtained.
F 0.91 In Fig. 10 the different heat losses have
F' - - - - = 0.83 been represented in a numerical example,
1 + ~F 1 + (0.1)(0.91)
showing the following approximate reparti-
The temperature profile in the fin for a value tion:
o f ~bs = 700 W/m 2 is represented in Fig. 9. - radiative losses: 59%
- convective losses: 26%
- back losses: 15%
CALCULATION OF TOTAL LOSSES AND OVER- The overall heat transfer coefficient, UI,
ALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT which is an important characteristic of a solar
collector is defined by:
The total heat losses, ql, per unit surface,
can be divided into the front losses, qf, con- U, - (43)
sisting of radiative losses, q,, and convective T,, --
losses, c/on, from the absorber plate to the
transparent cover, and of the back losses, qb, In a similar manner one can calculate the
through the thermal insulation. The front heat transfer coefficient related to the convec-
losses are in turn transmitted from the trans- tive and radiative losses:
parent cover to the ambient air. ego(T4p -- T 4)
From results obtained in the preceding U, - - (44)
sections, one can write: Tp - - Tc Tp -- Tc

q~ = Va(Tc -- T~) (36) qcn

Ucn =
qf = e g a ( T ~ -- 74) + [1 -- 0.33(s/90)] ×

X [Tp --T¢] 413 = qr + qcn (37)

[1 -- 0.33(s/90)] ( T p - - T c ) 4/s
(45)
qb = Ub(Tp -- Ta) (38)

4, = 4, + 4. (39) It can easily be seen that the various heat

transfer coefficients, UI, Ur, Uen , Ua, Ub are
1
eg = (40) related by the following equation:
Z/ep + 1/ec -- 1

~kb
Ub ~ -- (41)
eb HEAT LOSSES w i r e 2

Ua = 5.7 + 3.8V (42) 400 - -

F r o m these equations the front losses,qf, the 30~ - ~t

back losses, qb, and the total losses, ql, can
~r
be calculated as a function of the plate tem- 20C --
perature, Tp, assuming that the other param-
eters (ep, ec, Ta, V, ~kb, eb, 8) a m known. The 100, --
qcn

cover plate temperature, To, has to be cal-

culated as an intermediate step. . I
10 20 30 ~0 50 60 70 (Tp-To)
Practically, one can use the following pro- oc
cedure: F i g . 1 0. H e a t losses.
 39

(j.t)2 I
UI = I 1 + Ub (46)

u, + uo~ ua
In Fig. 11 the overall heat transfer coefficient,
derived from the preceding example has been
represented as a function o f (Tp -- Ta).
Although it varies slightly with temperature,
( ,.~12
for the characterization of a collector, a con-
stant average value will be assumed.

Ut W/m2°C
Fig. 12. Transmission through one cover.

U| ...-
where n is the refractive index of the trans-
parent medium (the refractive index of air is
1).
At the second interface, the quantity (1 --
-- TG~ 5 o c ; s.45°;V. 3m/s p)p is reflected and the quantity (1 - - p ) 2 is
£ p , 0.96; £ c . 0 . 8 6
transmitted. Summing up the transmitted
terms after the multiple reflections, the
transmission coefficient, rF, becomes:
I i I I I" I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ( Tp-To ]
oC TF = (1 __p)2 + (1 __p.)2op2 + (1 _ _ p ) 2 . p 4 +
Fig. 11. Overall heat transfer coefficient: single-glass
black paint collector. 1--p
+ .... - - (48)
l+p

With N covers the transmission coefficient,

TF, is:
TRANSMISSION OF RADIATION THROUGH
TRANSPARENT COVERS l--p
rF, N = 1 + ( 2 N - - 1)p (49)
The transparent cover (or covers) plays an
important role in the solar collector because For non-polarized radiation, the reflection
of the so-called "greenhouse effect". Because coefficients, Pl and P2, of the t w o compo-
of its selective properties, it transmits the nents o f polarization are given b y Fresnel's
solar radiation in the spectrum of sun-light formula:
and acts as a gray or black b o d y , in the infra- sin2 (02 - - 8 1 )
red spectrum, for the r e ~ m i t t e d radiation Pl - Sin2(02 + 8 1 ) (50)
from the absorber plate, "trapping" sunlight.
Not all the incident radiation reaches the
tan2 (02 - - 0 1 )
absorber plate. Due to the Fresnel reflections
and the absorption within the cover material, P2 -- tan2(02 + 01 ) (51)
only a portion o f the incident energy is trans-
F o r angles of incidence inferior to 45 °, it is
mitted.
sufficient to consider an average value for p :
Fresnel reflections at interfaces 1
Let us consider an incident beam, equal to p = ~ ( p l + p2) (52)
unity, defined b y the angle, 01 (Fig. 12). The
For radiation at normal incidence:
fraction, p, is reflected at the first interface.
The fraction, (1 -- p), is refracted at angle 02,
01 -~n02 -~ 0 (53)
according to Snell's law:
sin 01 = n sin 02 (47) and combination of eqns. ( 5 0 ) - ( 5 3 ) gives:
40

(n - - 1) 2 1 - - 0.041
p(0) - (n + 1) 2 (54) (T,)2 - - 0.921
1 + 0.041

C o m b i n i n g eqn. (54) w i t h eqns. (48) a n d (49) T h e average t r a n s m i s s i o n is:

t h e Fresnel t r a n s m i s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , a t
(rr)x + (r,)2 0.524 + 0.921
n o r m a l i n c i d e n c e , are: r - - - 0.72.
2 2
2n
TF ( 0 ) - n2 + I (55) Absorption of radiation
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f t r a n s m i s s i o n , ra, within
t h e m a t e r i a l is r e p r e s e n t e d b y B o u g e r ' s law:
2n
T F ' N ( 0 ) = 2n +N(n - - 1) 2 (56) Ta = e -KL (57)

K is t h e e x t i n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w h i c h can v a r y
Example 6. f r o m 0 . 0 4 / c m f o r an e x c e l l e n t glass t o 0 . 3 2 /
Calculate t h e Fresnel t r a n s m i s s i o n c o e f - c m f o r a p o o r glass; L is t h e a c t u a l p a t h o f
ficients in t h e case o f 1, 2 a n d 3 glass covers, radiation through the medium.
at n o r m a l i n c i d e n c e , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e refrac-
tive i n d e x o f glass is 1.53. F r o m e q n . ( 5 6 ) : E x a m p l e 8.
Calculate t h e a b s o r p t i o n in t h e case o f 1, 2
2 × 1.53
a n d 3 glass covers, at n o r m a l incidence, as-
N = 1 r F a ( 0 ) = 2 × 1.53 + 1 ( 1 . 5 3 - - 1 ) 2 - s u m i n g t h a t t h e e x t i n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t is e q u a l
to 0.18/cm and that the thickness of each
= 0.92
glass c o v e r is 4 m m . A t n o r m a l i n c i d e n c e t h e
2 × 1.53 a c t u a l pass is e q u a l t o t h e t h i c k n e s s :
N=2 TF.2(0) = N = 1 ; L = 0.4 c m ; Ta = e -(°'~sX°'4) = 0 . 9 3
2 × 1.53 + 2(1.53 - - 1) ~

= 0.84 N = 2; L = 0.8 c m ; ra = e -(°'~s)(°'s) = 0.87

N = 3; L = 1.2 c m ; ra = e -(als)°'2) = 0.81
2 × 1.53
N=3 TF.S(0) -- E x a m p l e 9.
2 × 1.53 + 3(1.53 - - 1) 2
Calculate t h e a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , ra, in
= 0.78 t h e case o f a glass c o v e r o f 4 m m t h i c k n e s s
w i t h an e x t i n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f 0 . 1 8 / c m f o r
E x a m p l e 7. an i n c i d e n t r a d i a t i o n a t 70 °.
Calculate t h e F r e s n e l t r a n s m i s s i o n in t h e In e x a m p l e 7 t h e r e f r a c t e d angle was f o u n d
case o f 1 glass cover, at an i n c i d e n c e o f 70 °, e q u a l t o 3 7 . 8 9 °. T h e p a t h length is t h e n :
a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e r e f r a c t i v e i n d e x o f glass is
0.4
1.53. E q n . (42) gives L - - 0.51 c m
cos 3 7 . 8 9
sin 70
02 = arc sin - 37.89 °
1.53 a n d ra = e -(°'1s)(°'51) = 0.91.
Eqns. (50) a n d ( 5 1 ) give:
Combined transmission due to reflections and
sin 2 ( 3 7 . 8 9 - - 7 0 ) absorption
= 0.312
Pl = sin~(37.89 + 70) T h e c o m b i n e d t r a n s m i s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , T,
t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t b o t h r e f l e c t i o n and ab-
tan2(37.89 -- 70) s o r p t i o n , is given b y :
= 0.041
P2 = t a n 2 ( 3 7 . 8 9 + 70) T = • T, (58)

E q n . (48) gives:
E x a m p l e 10.
1 --0.312 Calculate t h e c o m b i n e d t r a n s m i s s i o n coef-
(Tr)1 = - 0.524
1 + 0.312 ficient f o r 1, 2 and 3 glass covers o f 4 m m
 41

thickness, with a refractive index equal t o

1.53 at n o r mal incidence. ~ 100[" ~ L O W IRONCONTENT
Taking th e results f r om previous examples:
N = 1; r = r~.% = (0.92)(0.93) = 0.86
63
3 .k .5.6 .71.5 3.1 4.7 7.q
N = 2; r = r~'r~ = (0.84)(0.87) = 0.73 WAVELENGTH,pm

N = 3; r = r r ' % = (0.78)(0.81) = 0.66 601" J " ~ HIGH IRONCONTENT

The c o m b i n e d solar transmittance can be cal-
culated f o r various incident angles. In Fig. 13
it can be seen t h a t this coefficient presents a
rather c o n s t a n t value for incident angles E ~ ,4 .5 .6 ,8 !.6 ~ 3.2 t..0
WAVELENGTH,p m
inferior to 45 °.
Fig. 14. Spectral transmittance o f glass.
TRANSMITTANCE

N-1 At a given incident angle, if r is the trans-

mittance o f the cover and a the absorptance
0,1 -- N.2
b y the absorber plate (ra) is absorbed and
N,,3
0.E--
(1 -- a ) r is reflected back t o the cover in the
f o r m o f mainly diffuse radiation (Fig. 15).
The q u a n t i t y (1 -- a)rPd is reflected back t o
0.4--
t he absorber plate, where Pd is the diffuse
reflectance o f the cover.
0.,~--
The energy ultimately absorbed is defined
b y t he effective transmittance-absorptance
I I I I
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 g0 90 coefficient (ra)~:
INCIDENTANGLE o
}l=oo
Fig. 13. T r a n s m i t t a n c e o f glass covers.
( ~ a ) e = (~'Ol) ~ [(1 --ol)Pd] n =
nffiO
Remark:
It has been assumed t h a t the transmittance TO~
is i n d e p e n d e n t o f the wavelength. In t he case
(60)
1 -- (1 - - a)p d
o f a strong d e p e n d e n c e , t he total transmit-
tance can be calculated by: With an acceptable a p p r o x i m a t i o n t he diffuse
reflectance, Pd, Can be t aken equal t o the
; r ~I~d)~ specular reflection o f the cover at 60 °, as cal-
0 culated in example 7.
r - (59)

Ix d?t ' •INCI DENT SOLAR /COVER

0 4 2

In Fig. 13 th e transmittance curves for 1, 2

and 3 glass covers are presented as a f u n c t i o n
o f incident angle and in Fig. 14 t h e spectral
transmittance o f glass is shown f or various
iron oxide contents.
THE TRANSMITTANCE-ABSORPTANCE
DUCT
The effective energy absorbed is deter-
mined b y the transmittance-absorptance pro-
d u c t o f th e system represented b y t he trans-
parent cover and absorber plate.
ABSORBER PLATE
Fig. 15. Absorption of solar radiation by absorber
plate.
PRO-
USEFUL ENERGY ABSORBED AND INSTANTA-
NEOUS EFFICIENCY OF A SOLAR COLLECTOR
If I is the incident energy on the cover, the
useful energy, 4 , , absorbed per unit surface,
42

will be the difference b e t w e e n the absorbed THE TEMPERATURE P R O F I L E IN THE FLOW

energy (ra)e. I and the heat losses Ul(Tp -- DIRECTION
T.)
qu = (rot),I -- U , ( T p -- ira) (61) Considering an element, dy, in Fig. 17 and
introducing the efficiency factor, F ' , defined
If A is the surfaceof the collectorexposed to previously, the increase of enthalpy of the
the incident radiation, the useful energy fluid is equal to the absorbed radiation minus
becomes (assuming steady state conditions): the heat losses:
C]u = AO'ot),I --AU~(Tp -- Ta) (62)
rnfCpdTt = F ' [ ( r o t ) e I - - U,(T~ -- T s ) ] A dy
The instantaneous efficiency, ~, is defined as 1
the section of the useful energy, e]u, over the
(64)
incident energy A I :
Integration gives the value of the fluid tem-
n - - (ra)e -- U1 (63) perature, Tf, at level y:
AI I
(TOt),I-- UI(Tf - - Ta) = e_ F '/~(y/l) (65)
Th equation which defines the instanta- ( T o t ) e ! - Uz(Tn -- Ta)
neous efficiency, is k n o w n as the Hottel-
Whillier equation. It characterizes a solar col- where
lector b y only t w o coefficients (Va)e and Ul. AU1
The first coefficient (rot}, relates to the pro- (66)
cess o f absorption of energy and the second /~- rhtCp
coefficient to the thermal loss. It is the basic
equation which is used in collector testing for mf = mass flow
the determination of the thermal performance Cp = specific heat of fluid
of a collector. It is often assumed that the
t w o coefficients are constant, even though it A = surface of collector
has been seen in the preceding paragraphs (TOt), = effective transmittance - absorptance
h o w t h e y axe influenced b y various param- coefficient
eters. The approximations and the errors
which can result from this hypothesis are I = incident radiation
compatible with experimental precision. UI = overall heat transfer coefficient of the
In Fig. 16 the instantaneous efficiency collector
curve of the collector defined previously, is
shown. Ta = ambient temperature
Tn = fluid inlet temperature.

l OUTLET

9: EFFICIENCY -1
n
Y

~'~'.~,~.~,,~,_GLASS COVER ( BLACK PAINT) J

- ~. dy

T
' - I ~MyABB COVER
(BLACK PA,"T)2 ~LASSiICOVER ~S~" -.
.2--
I
I I II I I I
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 [ Tp-To )/1
~ INLET

Fig. 16. Instantaneous efficiency curves. Fig. 17. Temperature distribution in flow direction.
 43

It can be seen from equation (65) that the and there is little to be gained in that direc-
temperature profile in the flow direction is tion. The increase of efficiency can be ex-
not linear except for small values o f the coef- pected essentially by the reduction of the
ficient ~. Introducing the average fluid tem- heat losses and various solutions are presented
perature, TIn, and the outlet fluid tempera- here. It should be noted that these solutions
ture, Tfe, one obtains: generally imply a certain deterioration in the
(Ta).I -- UI(Tm - - T.) 1 absorption process and one should be careful
- -- [1 - - e -F'~] ( 6 7 ) to verify that the overall effect is positive.
(rcx)~I -- U,(Tti -- T.) F'{3

( r o l ) . I - Ul(Tfe - - Ta) _ e_V, # (68) DOUBLE-GLASS SOLAR COLLECTORS

( T ~ ) e I - - U,(Ta - - T.)
Adding a transparent cover is one of the
These last two equations can be rearranged to first possibilities to reduce the heat losses due
express the useful energy, qu: to radiation and natural convection. On the
other hand, the transmittance-absorptance
F'[(ra)eI-- Ul(Tm -- Ta)]
coefficient will be diminished.
+ Tfe For the calculation of the heat losses, a
= F'[(ra),I--u, (Tfi 2 T.)Ix procedure similar to the one described pre-
viously can be used leading to the following
I 2 (1 - - e - F " ) ] set of equations (assuming two identical glass
X F-;-~ (1 + e -F'~) (69) covers, Fig. 18):
Ta
As long as the expression
2 (1 - - e - F ' ~ ) T¢2
X .,
F'~ (1 + e -F'~) rp
,"< "
is near unity, as is the case in practical ap-
plications, it can be seen that: Fig. 18. S c h e m a o f d o u b l e glass collector.

Tti + T,e
Tm--
2 qf = ha(Tcl -- T a) (70)
The mean fluid temperature. Tin. is very near q! = egl(Tc42 -- T41) + [1 -- 0.33(s/90)] ×
the average temperature derived from the
inlet and outlet temperature, except for very X ( T c 2 - - T e l ) 4/s (71)
small mass flows. (~f = e g 2 ( T 4 - - T 4 2 ) +
In the preceding sections, the heat losses
and efficiency of a " n o r m a l " collector have + [1 - - 0 . 3 3 ( s / 9 0 ) ] (Tp - - T o 2 ) 4/s (72)
been determined. The next sections will be qb = Ub (Tp -- Ta) (73)
devoted to various ameliorations which can
be considered to increase the efficiency of a ql = q~ + qb (74)
solar collector.
As it was said earlier, two distinct processes egl - (75)
2/ec -- 1
are involved: the absorption of energy and
the inevitable losses of energy which increase 1
with temperature. As far as the absorption of eg2 - (76)
1 1
energy is concerned, the only improvements --+ ----1
which can be expected concern the trans- ep ec
mittance of the transparent covers. Some new
types o f glasses, still very expensive, with ~b
Ub = - (77)
better transmission properties, are becoming eb
avaflabld. The absorption coefficient of black
paint absorber plates is o f the order of 0.96 Us = 5.7 + 3.8V (78)
44

In Figs. 19 and 20 the heat losses and the

overall heat transfer coefficient have been TD--%
N =2 ~7 = 0.71 -- 4.4 (80)
represented versus the temperature difference I
(Tp -- Ta). It can be seen that they have been The curves are plotted in Fig. 16. The double
considerably reduced compared to the case of glass collector becomes more effective than
the single glass collector. For the single glass the single glass collector only for values of
collector the average overall heat transfer
coefficient was of the order o f 6.5 W/m 2 °C Tp--Ta
> 0.06.
and for the double glass collector it is reduced I
to 4.4 W/m 2 °C. The choice between these two types of solar
Unfortunately, the effective transmittance- collectors should be made on the basis of the
absorptance product is also reduced. Using most likely value of (Tp - - Ta)/I under normal
the procedures described previously, a calcula- operation conditions.
tion gives: The numerical example has been treated
one glass cover: N = 1 for a low value of the wind velocity. For high
wind velocities, the superiority of the double-
(r~)e = 0.83 at normal incidence
glass collector would be more evident.
t w o glass covers: N = 2
(ra)e = 0.71 at normal incidence
SELECTIVE S U R F A C E S
leading to the t w o following equations for the
instantaneous efficiency:
It was shown previously that for a normal
single glass black paint collector the radiative
g = 1 ~ = 0.83 -- 6.5 Tp -- Ta (79)
I losses represent a b o u t 60% of the total losses.
So one of the effective ways to increase ef-
ficiency, is to reduce the radiative losses, that
is the global emissivity coefficient, %, be-
HEAT LOSSES Wlrn 2 tween the absorber plate and the transparent
cover,
~oo- s,q N G ~ eg =
1
(81)
300 - - 1/% + l / e c - - 1

200-- J ~ DOUBLE GLASS

This makes sense only if the transmittance of
the transparent cover and the absorptance of
100 --- the absorber plate in the spectrum of solar
radiation are not affected.
o
0 10
I 20
I 30
I 40
I 50
I 60
[ I
70 (Tp-Ta)
The emissivity coefficient either of the ab-
oC sorber plate or of the transparent cover must
Fig. 19. Total heat ]oemes. be made wavelength-dependent.

U t : W / m 2 oC Selective absorber surfaces

From Planck's and Wien's laws, it can be
noted (see relevant section) that the spectrum
UL
SINGLE GLASS of solar radiation and the spectrum of heat
radiation for temperatures up to a few
U[ hundred °C do not overlap b y any appreciable
4 -- amount. So if surfaces can be prepared in a
DOUBLE GLASS
manner that their absorption characteristics
2-- remain high for wavelengths below 2 pm and
i their emission characteristics low for wave-
0; I I I I ~ I 1 lengths above 2 p m the radiative losses can
'tO 20 30 40 50 60 70 (Tp-To)
oC be reduced without impairing the absorption
Fig. 20. Overall heat transfer coefficient. process.
 45

The electromagnetic theory of light shows
that metals are good reflectors o f long wave
radiation, the reflectivity being a function of
the wavelength and the electrical conductivity:
r~. = 1 -- 0.365(),x) -1/2
k = wavelength in pm
x = conductivity in ohms per mm 2 per m
length
rx = reflectivity.
The reflectivity of good conductors with
polished surfaces such as copper, for instance,
is found to be between 0.95 and 0.98 at a
wavelength of 2 p m and near 1 for very long
wavelengths.
For a given wavelength ),, the relations:
r~ + ~ = 1
an = e~
show that to a reflectivity of 0.95 corresponds
an emissivity, en, o f 0.05.
Electrolytical, chemical or electrochemical
s u r f a c e treatments can deposit films which
are visibly black and at the same time trans-
parent to wavelengths above 2 pm. F o r
instance black deposits are produced indus-
trially b y electroplating in particular of nickel
in the presence of zinc and sulphides. These
deposits on a bright metal base will show in
the visible spectrum an absorption of 80 -
90% and retain the emissivity of the metal
base in the infrared spectrum.
An ideal selective surface will have the
profile shown in Fig. 21.
Many different combinations of coatings
and metal substrates have been investigated
but it seems that the two most promising
solutions from an economic and industrial
point of view are the so-called "black nickel"
and "black chrome" solutions.
In Fig. 22 the heat losses and the efficiency
(82)
curve of a one-glass selective collector have
been calculated, assuming:
ep = 0.15 and a = 0.90.
For a black paint collector, the radiative
losses are predominant, here it is the convec-
tive losses which are the most important with
the following repartition:
- -radiativelosses: 2 0 %
- -convective losses: 5 4 %
- -back losses: 2 6 %
W h e n the convective losses are dominating it
can be of a certain interest to consider evacu-
ated collectors, where by reduction of the
(83)
pressure, the air is maintained stagnant inside
the collector (Gr < 1500). S o m e attempts
(84)
have been made to manufacture fiat plate
evacuated collectors. F r o m a technological
point of view it is more realisticto consider
cylindrical geometries as in the Phillips' col-
lector for instance.
Reflective transparent covers
A n o t h e r means of reducing the global
emissivity coefficient b e t w e e n the absorber
plate and the transparent cover, is to increase
the reflectivity of the transparent cover in the
infrared spectrum. It has been observed for
instance that deposits of indium-oxide, In2Oa,
on glass will increase the reflectivity of the
HEAT LOSSES ( w/m 2 ) (wire 2 OC)
500
SELECTIVE S U R F A C E / 1 , UL

d;k, ¢). 400 UL

~
1
~,.0.95
300 m
it
200

100
j ~ q r

t~. 0.05 0 I I----"V" I I I I

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
ym (Tp-To)
WAVE LEN6TH
Fig. 22. Heat losses and overall heat transfer coef-
Fig. 21. Ideal selective surface. ficient.
46

glass in the infrared spectrum up to 80% with Nu

a slight diminution of the transmittance in the

visible spectrum. The economy of such solu- 6 o
90 o
o
tions is still to be demonstrated for fiat plate ° o °
o
collectors. oo
o
o
o L/d-5
2 oaO °o

0 _o,.: o o ° ° ° ° ,,._+.^ ,.no o ° ° °

o 0 60 o
6
HONEYCOMB STRUCTURES 4 NO HONEY COHB

~ /..~'/~. ~o o ° r i d - 2 oo~L/d.5
2
By inserting "honeycomb" structures, also f ~o v -
oo
o
I~ n ° g ° 0 ° ° ° ¢ ° 90°°°°°
called Francia structures, between the absorber o o /.SO
plate and the transparent cover, both the heat 6

losses due to radiation and natural convection

2 °°~/d'S
are reduced in significant proportions. But
due to absorption of light in these transparent o o °°°°°°° ° ooooo °°°

structures, specially at inclined incident angles, ~] o o

o
30,
the transmittance-absorptance coefficient is o ° o
also reduced, leading to an overall effect 2 °°Lid=5

which is certainly positive but not as high as ]

(21^ a ~o
oo o ° o °
: : o~eo
ooo °

could have been expected from the reduction | o O°

of heat losses. 4 °o

Studies have been carried out at the JRC 2~,/ oo o ° L / d r 2 go tld.S

on the heat transfer p h e n o m e n a in honey- oo °
01 . . . . °°°° , I .~i'
comb structures specially by A. Baehr (see 10/' 10 5 10 6 107 go
report EUR-5760 d) who has investigated the Fig. 23. Measured free convective heat transfer in
repartition of radiative and convective losses inclined cells with honeycombs (from K. G. T.
for different configurations. The radiative Hollands).
losses are reduced because of a remission in
the infrared spectrum, from the cellular struc-
ture towards the absorber plate. The gov-
erning factor is the solid angle from which the
sun is seen at the bottom of the structure.
The higher the ratio l (height of cell) over d
(diameter of the cell), the more pronounced ,oo~-
I I I I
. M~...o..=m (v.....)
I I
-~
• A lu mlnum Nordlycomlb( I/w • 6.3) /
the effect. But due to absorption of light the ~ • I='=pw HmeF.mmO(I/w.6,3) [
Ik ~ ~ O Mylar ~ b @Teflon /
optimum ratio l/d is situated around 4 to 5. SO [] Mylet Honeyaomb + Tlflem + Gl e u -

The reduction of convective losses has also IIO •

been studied extensively by K. G. T. Hollands
who used polyethylene cells in order to elim-
inate the back radiation effect. Hollands mea- i TM

sured the Nusselt number as a function of the

Rayleigh number for different values of the
ratio l/d and of the inclination angle of the
~ 40
cells. In Fig. 23 results concerning ratios I/d =
2 and l / d = 5 are presented. It can be noted 30
that for l/d = 2, convective heat transfer is
suppressed up to Rayleigh numbers of the 20 ~

order of 20,000 and for lid = 5 the critical I0

Rayleigh numbers are of the order of 106.
The convective heat transfer is more impor- o i! io 46 no 75 tO 106
tant for horizontal positions than for vertical ANGLE OF JNCIOENCE , DEGREES
positions. It should also be observed that Fig. 24. Relative transmission of selected honey-
after the critical Rayleigh number the convec- comb materials as a function of incident angle (from
tive heat transfer starts very quickly and in NBS 899).

some cases becomes more important than the
heat transfer in the absence o f honeycombs.
The relative transmission of various honey-
comb materials as a function of incident
angle is presented in Fig. 24. It can be seen
that for paper and aluminium honeycombs
the relative transmission falls too rapidly to
permit practical applications. Even in the case
of Mylar honeycombs, for incident angles
greater than 30 °, the reduction in transmission
is not negligible.
The transmission-absorptance product for a
collector with and without a honeycomb is
shown in Fig. 25. By comparisons with curves
of Fig. 13, the influence of the honeycombs
can be evaluated.
LO
-- I ~ I
O.G
ie 0.8
0.7
NORMAL R L ECTI V Y GLASS
~ 0.5
i 0.4
~"0,3
0.1
I I I Lin, R. J. H., Optimization of coatings for fiat plate
15 $0 45
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE, DEGREF..S
Fig. 25. Transmission-absorptance product for a
single-glazed flat-plate solar collector incorporating a
honeycomb convection suppressor (from NBS 899).
899).
CONCLUSIONS
The complex nature of the photothermal
conversion solar energy which involves, on
one hand, the collection and the absorption
o f sunlight and, on the other hand, its trans-
formation into useful energy, has been illu-
strated by the description o f the basic thermal
and optical phenomena taking place in flat-
plate solar collectors. Because o f the low
densities o f solar fluxes, only carefully de-
47
signed collectors where heat losses are mini-
mired will lead to acceptable performances.
The choice of the basic materials for the
absorber, the transparent cover and the insu-
lating material will play an important role in
the determination of the quality of the col-
lectors. However, it should not be forgotten
that the quality of a collector is not only
based on its thermal performance but also
on its cost and durability. The final product
should be the result of a careful balance
between these three aspects.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Arnold, J. N., D. K. Edwards, and I. Carton, Effect
of tilt and horizontal aspect ratio on natural con-
. vection in a rectangular honeycomb, Trans. ASME,
J. Heat Transfer, 99 (1977) 120.
Buchberg, H., I. Catton, and D. K. Edwards, Natural
convection in enclosed spaces: A review of appli-
cation to solar energy collection, "Plans. ASME, J.
Heat Transfer, 98 (2) (1976) 182.
Charters, W. W. S. and L. J. Peterson, Free convection
suppression using honeycomb cellular materials,
Solar Energy, 13 (1972) 4.
Randall, K. R., J. W. Mitchell, and M. M. El Wakil,
Natural convection characteristics of flat-plate
collectors, In J. R. Howell and T. Min (eds.),
Heat Transfer in Solar Energy Systems, American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1977.
Beckman, W. A., S. A. Klein, and J. A. Duffle, Solar
Heating Design, Wiley, New York, 1977.
Hottel, H. C. and B. B. Woertz, Performance of fiat-
plate solar-heat exchangers, Trans. ASME, 14
(1942) 91.
QO solar collectors, Report C00/2930-4 to ERDA
(Jan. 1977).
McDonald G. E., Spectral reflectance properties of
black chrome for use as a solar selective coating,
NASA Tech. Memo NASA TMX 0171596 (1974).
Tabor, H., Selective surfaces for solar collectors, In
Low Temperature Engineering Appl|cations of
Solar Energy, ASHRAE, New York, 1967.
Hottel, H. C. and B. B. Woertz, The performance of
fiat-plate solar-heat collectors, Trans. ASME, 64
(1942) 91.
Whillier, A., Solar energy collection and its utilization
for house heating, ScD. Thesis, MIT, 1953.
Klein, S. A., Calculation of fiat-plate loss coefficients,
Solar Energy, 17 (1975) 79.
Tabor, H., Radiation, convection, and conduction
coefficients in solar collectors, Bull. Res. Council
of Israel, 6C (1958) 155.
Barley, C. D. and C. B. Winn, Optimal sizing of solar
collectors by the method of relative areas, Solar
Energy, 21 (1978) 279.