International Journal of Adolescence and Youth

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Loneliness and Drug Use in Young Adults

Ami Rokach

To cite this article: Ami Rokach (2002) Loneliness and Drug Use in Young Adults, International
Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 10:3, 237-254, DOI: 10.1080/02673843.2002.9747903

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International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 2002, Volume 10, pp. 237-254
0267-3843/02 $10
© 2002 A B Academic Publishers
Printed in Great Britain

Loneliness and Drug Use in

Young Adults

AmiRokach*

The Institute for the Study and Treatment of Psychosocial Stress, 104 Combe Ave.,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3H 4/9.

ABSTRACT

Loneliness is a prevailing experience which is particularly familiar to adolescents

and young adults. It is a subjective experience which is influenced by one's
personality, life experiences, and situational variables. The present study
examined the influence of Ecstasy (MDMA) use on the experience of loneliness.
The ecstasy users were compared to non ecstasy users and to a group of young
adults in the general population who are non users of drugs. A total of 818
participants from all three groups volunteered to answer a 30-item yes/no
questionnaire, reflecting on their loneliness experiences and what it meant to
them. The factors which compose the multidimensional loneliness experience are
Emotional distress, Social inadequacy and alienation, Growth and discovery,
Interpersonal isolation and Self-alienation. Results revealed significant
differences between the scores of the Ecstasy users and the other groups. Gender
differences between and within the groups were also examined.

INTRODUCTION

Recent studies suggest that a large proportion of the population are

frequently lonely (Rokach & Brock, 1997). Ornish (1998) stated at
the very beginning of his book Love & Survival: "Our survival
depends on the healing power of love, intimacy, and relationships.
Physically. Emotionally. Spiritually. As individuals. As com-
munities. As a culture. Perhaps even as a species." (p. 1). And
indeed, loneliness has been linked to depression, anxiety and
interpersonal hostility (Hansson, Jones, Carpenter & Remondet,

*E-mail: arokach@yorku.ca
238
1986; Lau & Kong, 1999), to drug and alcohol abuse (McWhirter,
1990), to an increased vulnerability to health problems Oones, Rose
& Russell, 1990), and even to suicide (Cutrona, 1982; Tundo &
Baldessarini, 2001).
Rook (1988) observed that loneliness results from the interaction
of person factors and situational constraints. That interaction is
closely associated with the changing circumstances which one
encounters growing up - from cradle to grave. Adolescence
(teenage years) has been described as a period of "storm and
stress" (Arnett, 1999) characterized by mood disruption including
extreme emotions (Larson & Richards, 1994), increased substance
abuse Oohnston, O'Malley & Bachman, 1994), heavy reliance on
peers and vulnerability to peer pressure and risky behaviour
(Arnett, 1999; Helsen, Vollebergh & Meeus, 2000). Young
adulthood (ages 20-30) is a period which in some way accentuates
the changes which the adolescent has encountered (Hatcher,
Trussell, Stewart & Stewart, 1994). However it lacks the sharp
mood swings and frequent conflicts which are amongst the more
salient characteristics of the youth. During their 20's young adults
in the Western culture break away from their family and prepare
themselves for life vocationally, academically and frequently
socially (Coon, 1992).
Akerlind & Hornquist (1992) maintained that "man is a social
creature, totally dependent on the group for his or her
development and survival as a human being" (p. 405). They also
noted the significant increase in substance abuse amongst
adolescents and young adults, toward the beginning of the 21st
century (see also MacNeil, Stewart & Kaufman, 2000; Newcomb &
Bentler, 1988). Drug abuse among adolescents and young adults is
one of the greatest challenges of our time, considered by some to be
an epidemic (Goldberg, 1999; Shelder & Block, 1990).
While there has been little theory development regarding the
impact of drug use in adolescence and young adulthood on later
life, it has commonly been observed that the use of various
substances interferes with, or impairs, physical, psychological or
emotional functioning (see Ferguson & Horwood, 1997; Pedersen
& Skrondal, 1999). Although drug consumption is a way of "fitting
in" and joining one's peers recreationally (Akerlind & Hornquist,
1992; Weider & Kaplan, 1975), different substances effect the
individual differently and are consumed to fulfill, at times,
opposing needs (i.e. "uppers" vs. "downers").
Deutch (1967) observed that drug addiction is often employed as
a strategy to lessen the pain of emotional deprivation and social
alienation. White (1991) asserted that substance abuse is
 239
particularly evident in those who are socially uncomfortable, suffer
from anxiety, low self-esteem, mild to moderate depression and a
lower than normal degree of social conformity. White {1991) as
well as Weider and Kaplan {1975) pointed out that drugs are not
chosen indiscriminately, nor are they freely interchangeable. They
concluded that "the dominant conscious motive for drug use is not
the seeking of 'kicks', but the wish to produce- pharmacologically
- a reduction in distress that the individual cannot achieve by his
own psychic efforts" (p. 351). In that respect they observed that
amphetamines, Methedrine and cocaine seem to increase the
awareness of drive-feeling and diminish fatigue. Alcohol, on the
other hand, is widely viewed as helpful in lowering one's
inhibitions and facilitating social intercourse {Akerlind &
Homquist, 1992). Furthermore, these authors concluded that
"dependence on drugs is, accordingly, an actual substitute for
dependence on others" (p. 407). Thombs (1999) further stated that
one of the functions drugs fulfill is to facilitate social interaction,
interpersonal communication, and self-disclosure.
Young adults who are frequent users of a variety of drugs were
observed by Shedler and Block (1990) to be alienated, unable to
invest in meaningful personal relationships, and experience a
significant alienation from the "love and work" (p. 626) that
precedes a sense of satisfaction and meaning to life. In general, they
feel troubled, inadequate, mistrustful, and lonely. Since there
appears to be a connection between substance use (and abuse) and
loneliness it is of theoretical and clinical interest to explore the
qualitative differences of the loneliness experiences of different
users. The following will explain why it is expected that the
person's needs and deficiencies would dictate their drug of choice.
The present study examined the loneliness of MDMA users in
comparison to non-MDMA users and the general population.

MDMA
Raves, the dancing of hundreds of young adults, and the use of
MDMA {Methylenedioxymethamphetamine) a.k.a. "Ecstasy" have
gained popularity world wide (Reynolds, 1999; Solowij, Hall &
Lee, 1992). Although MDMA was synthesized in 1914 as an
appetite suppressant, it was never marketed. In the 1980's it
became a preferred drug for youth in England and thereafter had
spread world wide (Climko, Roehrich, Sweeney & Al-Razi, 1986-
87; Reynolds, 1999). MDMA is a stimulant/hallucinogen com-
monly used recreationally in dance clubs playing "Acid House"
240

music (Elk, 1996). The hallucinogenic effects of the drug are said to
not be as intense as those of LSD or mescaline, and the stimulant
effects are reported to be similar to those of amphetamines and
cocaine. The majority of users report no negative long lasting or
debilitating effects after taking MDMA (Elk, 1996; Reynolds, 1999).
MDMA's reported popularity derives from reports about its
effect as a mood elevator, as enhancing communication and
intimacy, and for contributing to improved interpersonal
relationships and increased self-esteem (Clinko et al., 1986-87; Elk,
1996; Solowij, Hall & Lee, 1992). Reynolds (1999) described MDMA
as a social drug, since it is rarely used by a solitary individual.
Amongst MDMA' s social effects is the manner it has transformed
the way youth spend their leisure time. MDMA removes
inhibitions, diminishes aggression and promotes tolerance (see
also Solowij, Hall & Lee, 1992). Since alcohol'muddies' the MDMA
high, the Rave culture- in which MDMA's use has proliferated-
has developed an anti alcohol taboo.
Given the subjective effects of MDMA in promoting
"togetherness", it is likely taken by individuals who feel socially
isolated and perhaps unable to feel a sense of belonging in other
ways. The locations in which the drug is most popularly
consumed, namely at Raves and parties, are also conducive to a
feeling of oneness. A lonely individual who attends a Rave and
takes MDMA may find himself suddenly surrounded by hundreds
of 'friends', most of whom are also taking the same drug, wearing
similarly styled clothing, and seeking connection with others.
Since MDMA is a social drug which is consumed primarily in
Raves, it stands to reason that it would attract those whose
loneliness is characterized by social alienation and inadequacy and
Interpersonal isolation (a detailed description of these will follow).
The loneliness of MDMA users was compared to that of non-
MDMA drug users, and to the loneliness experienced by the
general population.

METHOD

Eight hundred and eighteen participants volunteered to answer

the loneliness questionnaire. A total of 275 men and 543 women
comprised the sample. One hundred and six participants used
MDMA, 88 used other substances (such as Marijuana, Speed,
Cocaine, or Heroin) and 624 participants were not from amongst
the self-identified drug users.
The average age of all participants was 22.00 years with ages
 241
ranging between 15 to 30. The mean level of education (i.e. last
grade completed) was 14.24 with a range of 10 to 20. Eighty-eight
percent of the participants were single, 11% married, and 1% have
had a relationship but were no longer in it due to separation,
divorce or death of a spouse. Table 1 provides a more detailed
breakdown of gender, age, education, and marital status within
each age group.

Procedure

Participants were asked to reflect on their past loneliness

experiences and to endorse those items which described it. They
took approximately ten minutes to answer the questionnaire. In an
attempt to overcome the methodological difficulty of other studies
which relied solely on college students (see McWhirter, 1990;
Vincenzi & Grabosky, 1987), the general population participants
were recruited in urban Canadian centers from all walks of life.
They were recruited in high schools, universities, shopping malls,
and local centers where adolescents and young adults congregate
they identified themselves, on the questionnaire, as non-drug
users.
The regular drug users (to differentiate from occasional
experimenters) were recruited in areas which cater to a high
volume of young people, such as coffee shops and clothing stores.
In order to obtain a sample of individuals who have attended Rave
parties and used MDMA, many of the questionnaires were filled
out in clothing stores which specialize in "street wear", i.e. youth-
centered stores selling the style of clothing most commonly worn
by attendees of raves. Some questionnaires were also collected on
university campuses and others on sidewalks in areas where
Ecstasy users are known to frequent. Raves, parties, and clubs were
not used to recruit participants despite the obvious benefit of
obtaining large numbers of Ecstasy users. That was done in order
to avoid respondents who were under the influence of drugs and/
or alcohol while answering the questionnaire. Participants were
queried whether they were regular drug users, and what drugs did
they consume.

The Loneliness Questionnaire

All items for the questionnaire were written by the author and
based on Rokach's previous research on loneliness (Rokach, 1988).
242

That study yielded a theoretical model of loneliness as reported by

five hundred and twenty-six (526) subjects who were asked to
describe their experiences of loneliness. The present items were
chosen from those descriptions and were modified to provide
clarity and gender neutrality. Six psychologists and two
psychology students reviewed the first draft of the questionnaire
for any items or instructions which might have been lacking in
clarity, relevance, or content. The questionnaire was then
constructed incorporating this feedback.
Principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation was
applied to the data with .40 being designated as the minimum
loading for an item. The factor analytic procedure, using an SPSS
program, extracted the principal components, and the factor matrix
was then subjected to varimax rotation. The items contributing to
the factors were then examined for their meaning. Five factors
could be assigned meaning, and each accounted for sufficient
amount of the variance (at least 3%) to support statistical
meaningfulness. The remaining factors accounted for one or two
percent of the variance and so were ignored. Accordingly,
repetitions of the varimax rotations were limited to five factors
each to permit the results to be restricted to the most roust factors.
That analysis yielded five factors. The most robust factor to
emerge was Emotional distress (which accounted for 19% of the
variance). This included items that captured the intense pain, inner
turmoil, hopelessness, and feelings of emptiness associated with
loneliness. The second factor, Social inadequacy and alienation (7%
of the variance) addressed the perception and concomitant self-
generated social detachment which were reported as part of the
loneliness experience. The third factor, Growth and discovery (4%
of the variance) captured the positive, growth-enhancing, and
enriching aspects of loneliness and the increased feelings of inner
strength and self-reliance which follow. Interpersonal isolation
(3% of the variance) was the fourth factor. It depicted feelings of
alienation, abandonment, and rejection, which were reported as
related to a general lack of close relationships and/ or absence of a
primary romantic relationship. The fifth factor, Self-alienation (3%
of the variance) described a detachment from one's self that is
characterized by numbness, immobilization, and denial. In all,
these factors accounted for 36% of the variance. Each factor was a
subscale in the questionnaire and participants' scores are the sum
of items they endorsed in each subscale (See Appendix A for
sample items). The questionnaire had 82 items which describe the
experience of loneliness (see Rokach & Brock, 1997). The general
instructions request that participants reflect on their previous
 243

experiences of loneliness and endorse the items which describe

them. They were assured of anonymity and were not asked to
identify themselves. Although the original questionnaire included
82 items, due to participants' past feedback about its length, it was
shortened and only the six highest loading items in each subscale
were included; hence, the questionnaire included a total of 30
items. Kuder-Richardson internal consistency reliabilities were
calculated and yielded the following alpha values: F1 =.68; F2 =.66
F3 = 83; F4 = .63; F5 = .67. K-R alpha for the 82 item questionnaire
was .66.

RESULTS

Table 1 illustrates the breakdown of gender, age, marital status,

and educational le~el within each group. Age (F(2815) = 5.10;
p < .05) and education (F(2 815) = 10.42; p < .001) were found to be
significantly different amongst the three groups. A post-hoc
Bonferroni test indicated that the general population differed
significantly from the other two groups in, both, age and
education. Marital status (X2 (2 2>= 12.93; p < .05) and gender (X2 (21)
= 22.19; p < .001) were founa to be significantly different across
populations. All four demographic variables were covaried in later
analyses.
A MANCOVA yielded significant differences in the experience
of loneliness which were reported amongst the three subgroups
(F( 10608) =9.13; p < .001). ANCOVA's were then calculated in order
to examine in more detail those differences. Results of the present
study demonstrate that overall, the Ecstasy users group had the
highest subscale scores on all but Growth and discovery (see Table
2).
Significant differences amongst the three groups were found in
Emotional distress (Fa_~n 5> = 7.22; p < .001) with Bonferroni
indicating a significant dltterence between the Ecstasy and Non-
Ecstasy users' mean scores. Ecstasy users had the highest mean
score, and were significantly different on Social inadequacy and
alienation (F(2 815) = 7.23; p < .001). Growth and discovery was the
only subscale; on which Ecstasy users did not have the highest
mean score. A significant difference between the Non-Ecstasy
users and the general population was found (F (2 815) = 3.31; p < .05).
Ecstasy users had the highest mean score ' on Interpersonal
alienation (F(2,s15) = 7.39; p < .001) with significant differences
indicated between Ecstasy and Non Ecstasy users, and Non
Ecstasy users and the general population. Similarly, Ecstasy users
 TABLE 1
N
Demographics :e
Population N1 Marital Status Education Age

Single Married Divorced M SD M SD

Ecstasy Users 106 86 20 - 13.42 2.14 22.05 3.78

(81%) (19%) (10-20)2 (15-30)
Men 56 50 6 - 13.30 2.10 21.75 3.92
Women 50 36 14 13.56 2.20 22.38 3.63
X2(1,1) = 5.16* - F(1,104) = 0.38 F<1,104)= 0.73

Non-Ecstasy Users 88 73 14 1 13.68 2.23 23.02 4.60

(83%) (16%) (1%) (10-20) (15-30)
Men 33 26 7 13.64 1.92 22.73 4.49
Women 55 47 7 1 13.71 2.41 22.60 4.65
X2(1,2) = 1.64 F(1.86) = 0.2 F(l.S6)=1.24

General Population 624 557 56 7 14.46 2.56 21.84 2.92

(89%) (90%) (2%) (10-20) (15-30)
Men 186 160 20 6 13.38 3.05 22.00 3.56
Women 438 399 36 1 14.91 2.17 21.77 2.60
X2<1,2l = 11.74** F(1,62o) = 50.58** F(1,622) = 0.78

Total 818 716 90 8 14.24 2.50 22.00 3.27

(88%) (11%) (1%)
Men 275 236 33 6 13.39 2.76 22.16 3.79
Women 543 482 57 2 14.67 2.25 21.91 2.98
X2(1.4) = 22.42** F(2,540) = 14.36*** F(2,540 ) = 2.57
1N's and percentages may not add up due to missing data. 2ffi parenthesis= range *p< .05** p < .001 *** p< .005
X~(U) (gen?er by group) = 20.25*** F< 1,115) (educ by group) = 8.87**
X (1,2) (manstat by group)= 3.08 F(1,139) (age by group)= 1.80
 TABLE2

Comparing Mean Subscale Scores of Loneliness Exp. by Group

Social inadequacy Growth and Interpersonal

Emotional distress and alienation discovery alienation Self-alienation
1
Population N M so M so M so M so M so
Ecstasy
Users (E) 106 3.78 1.79 3.94 1.76 2.41 2.11 3.65 1.79 2.88 2.00

Men 56 3.42 1.77 3.91 1.77 2.27 2.14 3.44 1.88 2.88. 2.05
Women 50 4.18 1.75 3.98 1.77 2.58 2.11 3.88 1.68 3.12 1.94
MANCOV A2 F 15 _991 = 1.63 F 1 ~. 991 = 2.78 F 1 ~. 991 = 0.41 F 1 ~. 991 = 1.78 F 1 ~. 991 = 2.02 F 1 ~. 991 = 0.66

Non Ecstasy
Users (NE) 88 2.75 1.67 3.17 1.78 2.90 2.33 2.66 1.93 1.52 1.61
Men 33 2.51 1.48 3.09 1.89 3.06 2.37 2.30 1.94 1.55 1.70
Women 55 2.89 1.77 3.21 1.73 2.81 2.33 2.87 1.91 1.50 1.57
MANOVA F 15_821 = 0.52 FILB61 = 1.05 Fl1.861 = 0.10 FIL861 = 0.22 FILB61 = 1.81 FIL861 = 0.10

General
Population (GP) 624 3.27 1.93 3.26 1.77 2.28 2.10 3.27 1.78 1.43 1.46
Men 186 2.82 1.93 3.39 1.80 2.17 2.04 3.20 1.80 1.48 1.52
Women 438 3.47 1.90 3.20 1.76 2.34 2.12 3.30 1.78 1.41 1.44
MANCOVA2 F 15 _6121 = 3.97"• F ~. F 1 ~. 6221 = 1.56 F11 _6221 = 0.89 F ~. 6221 = 0.37
1 6221 = 14.74.. 1 F 1 ~. 6221 = 0.28

Total 818 3.29 1.90 3.34 1.79 2.36 2.12 3.25 1.82 1.63 1.63
Men 275 2.91 1.87 3.46 1.82 2.29 2.11 3.15 1.86 1.73 1.72
Women 543 3.47 1.89 3.27 1.77 2.40 2.14 3.31 1.80 1.58 1.58
MANCOVA5 -3 groups Fi28151 = 7.22••• F 12 .~J SJ = 7.23... F12 sm = 3.31• FJ 2 ~ 121 = 7.39••• Fl2 sl;;t = 39.38•••
Bonferroni 'E&NE all3 groups NE&GP E &'NE; NE & GP E&NE;E&GP
Sig. Diff. Sig. Oiff. Sig. Oiff. Sig. Oiff. Sig. Oiff.
MANCOVA' Men F _2721 = 3.12• =
F 12_2721 2.56 Fl2.2721 = 2.54 F _ = 11.37•••
12 F 12_2721 = 4.33•• 12 2721
Fno,s)6> = ~.85•••
Bonterrom E&NE; E&GP E&NE;NE&GP E &NE;E&GP
MANCOV A3 Women F12,;.o1 = 6.19.. F 12,5>01 = 4.46•• Fl2,5401 = 1.39 F12,;.o1 = 4.21•• 28. 71 ...
F 12,5401 =
Fi1D,s321 = 6 ·03 •••
Bonferrom E&NE;E&GP E&GP E&NE E&NE;E&GP

•p < .05 ..p < .01 ...p < .001 1N's may not add due to missing data. 2Marital
status was covaried.
3Marital status and education were covaried. 'Age was covaried.
5Age, gender, marital status, and education were covaried. ~
246
had the highest mean score and differed significantly from the
other two groups on Self-alienation (F(2,815) = 39.38; p < .001).

DISCUSSION

Research suggested that loneliness is a frequent experience during

adolescence and young adulthood years (Helsen, Vollebergh &
Meeus, 2000; Waters, 2000). It was further pointed out that closely
related to that experience are emotional problems, and drug abuse
(Meeus, 1994-, Shedler & Block, 1990).
The present study investigated the effects which drug use in
general, and Ecstasy in particular had on the experience of
loneliness. Loneliness is a distressing and painful multi-
dimensional experience which is universal among all humans, and
as a unique subjective experience, it is affected by one's
personality, background, and situational variables (Rokach &
Brock, 1997; Rook, 1988). Results of the present study confirmed
that Ecstasy users experienced loneliness significantly differently
from the other two groups.
The Emotional distress subscale captures the pain, emotional
turmoil, sadness, helplessness, hopelessness and feelings of
emptiness which are such an integral part of experiencing
loneliness. Coon (1992) reviewed Erikson's (1963) theoretical
formulation and suggested that after establishing a stable identity
during the adolescent period, the person experiences a strong need
to "establish an essential quality of intimacy in his or her life" (p.
417). At that stage in one's life, he or she is prepared to share a
meaningful love or deep friendship with others. In line with
Erikson's view, Bachman and Johnson (1979) reported that 75% of
all college age men and woman ranked a good marriage and family
life as their primary adult goal. Dworetzky (1991) further added
that during that stage in one's life, the formulation of close
friendships and intimate relationships is vital to a healthy
psychosocial development of young adults. Drug users in general
were found to be "alienated, deficient in impulse control, and
manifestly distressed" (Shedler & Block, 1990; p.624). Ecstasy users
in particular may experience even higher degrees of emotional
distress than adolescents and young adults in general, or non
Ecstasy users, as can be inferred from their behavior during drug
use. Ecstasy users are known to attend Raves which "like the rock
festivals of the sixties and seventies, are one-off celebrations of
youthful exuberance, gatherings of the idealistic tribe" (Oh, 2000;
p.40). It is, thus, suggested that Ecstasy which was reported to
 247
facilitate "inner contentment, euphoria and enjoyable changes in
perception" (Solowij, Hall & Lee, 1992; p. 1163) is consumed by
those who are in need to attend to and calm particularly intense
levels of emotional distress.
The Social inadequacy and alienation subscale addressed the
perception of social isolation and the concomitant self-generated
social detachment and the self-deprecation which followed. The
present findings indicated that Ecstasy users experience it more
intensely than the other two groups. Young adults who are striving
to establish themselves economically, educationally and
professionally, attempting to start a family, keep their adolescent
friends or make new ones and crave for relationships, intimacy and
love (Coon, 1992); may be acutely aware of possible shortcomings
which may prevent them from achieving their goals in the time
frame which they strived for, or all together not achieve them. The
majority of people break away from their families at that age.
Leaving home is usually associated with building new friendships
with other adults. These friends then serve as substitutes for the
family and as allies in the process of breaking ties (Coon, 1992).
Seeing other young adults who may be socially well supported and
who may have achieved positions of power, prestige, social
desirability or marital and familial harmony could conceivably
lead to self-attribution of social inadequacy, self-deprecation and
perceived social alienation.
Drug users have been reported to feel inadequate, troubled,
alienated and unable to "invest in, or derive pleasure from,
meaningful personal relationships. Indeed, they seem fortified
against the possibility of such relationships through their hostility,
distrust, and emotional withdrawal" (Shedler & Block, 1990; p.
626).
Ecstasy users consume a drug which promotes the sense of
"hyper real immediacy" (Reynolds, 1999; p. 86) and which cleanses
perception and causes the recovery of childlike amazement,
"dressing in bright colours and decking themselves with toys and
candy" (Oh, 2000; p.42). It stands to reason, then, that this type of
behaviour and consequences of drug use, are sought after by
Ecstasy users who may experience heightened feelings of Social
inadequacy and alienation, to levels which are even higher than
other young drug users.
Growth and discovery depicts the beneficial effects of
loneliness, such as gaining a deeper understanding and
appreciation of oneself, increase in the value one assigns to
friendships and to social support and discovering of the resources
one has to cope with the pain of loneliness. As Moustakas (1961) so
248

poignantly put it "In absolutely solitary moments man experiences

truth, beauty, nature, reverence, humanity. Loneliness enables one
to come to a life with others with renewed hope and vitality [and]
with a fuller dedication" (p. 102). This, maybe more than other
facets of loneliness, relates to one's cognitive appraisal of the
experience, and the maturity and daily lessons, which were
accumulated along the path of living. Intuitively then, we can
expect a positive correlation between age and the Growth and
discovery scores.
Arnett (1999) in a meta analysis of the research on adolescence,
noted that this "storm and stress" period, as Hall (1904) referred to
it- "is not a myth that has captured the popular imagination but a
real part of life for many adolescents and their parents in
contemporary America" (p. 324). Arnett contends that going
through a period which is rife with conflicts with parents, mood
disruptions, engaging in risk behaviour and establishing one's
identity, adolescence does indeed appear - at least in North
America- to be a stressful, uneasy, conflictual period. During that
period adolescents break away from parental dominance, and
prepare for their future, by dating, establishing friendships and
selecting a vocation or future career. Clearly, such a turbulent and
future-orientated stage is not amenable to the reflection and self-
understanding that the more stable life changes could encourage.
Adolescents possess the cognitive abilities to manipulate
abstractions, to examine hypothetical ideas and to generalize from
the concrete to abstract ideas (Dworetzky, 1991). However, they
lack sufficient self-knowledge, maturity and life experience to fully
experience the growth and discovery which loneliness can bring
about.
The Growth and discovery subscale was the only one where
Ecstasy users did not differ from the other two groups, but rather
Non-Ecstasy drug users differed from the general population of
young adults and had the highest mean score on this subscale.
Drugs have been a part of religious rituals for thousands of years
(Goldberg, 1999). Some drugs have euphoric effects on its users
(Goldberg, 1999), enable the avoidance of physical and
psychological pain (Lyman & Potter, 1991), and promote a general
sense of wellness and community (White, 1991). Consequently, it is
suggested that drug users, who use drugs partially to deal with
loneliness, attach the euphoric experiences related to drug use to
their experience of loneliness. Since Growth and discovery are
individualized experiences, it is possible that Ecstasy users, who
thrive on the feelings of belonging and community, may
experience it to a lesser extent than Non-Ecstasy users; or in other
 249

words, no differently than youth and young adults in the general

population.
The Interpersonal alienation subscale highlights the sense of
utter aloneness associated with the experience of being abandoned.
It also addresses the absence of intimacy, or having no satisfying
meaningful intimate relationships. The Non-Ecstasy users scored
significantly lower on this subscale than the other two groups,
while Ecstasy users had the highest mean score.
Dworetzky (1991) contends that "young adults face many
choices and predicaments in our society. They must make
decisions about sexuality, marriage, children, career friendships,
social and civic interactions, and much more" (p. 383). Erikson
(1963) highlighted the psychosocial crisis which the young adult is
said to deal with and which involves intimacy vs. isolation. In that
stage the individual experiences a need to achieve an essential
quality of intimacy, being prepared to share meaningful love or
deep friendship with others. As Coon (1992) observed, not all are
fortunate to be socially accepted and find, or be able to maintain,
meaningful and close relationships. And yet, even those who are
married or sexually involved have no guarantee that intimacy will
prevail: "many adult relationships remain superficial and
unfulfilling" (p. 417). Failure to establish intimacy with others may
result in a deep sense of isolation.
White (1991) observed that "Perhaps the most consistent
findings, obtained by a number of different types of personality
measures, are that drug users tend to be less socially conforming,
more independent, and more impulsive" (p. 156). Since it was
found that the temporary effects of various drugs "numb out"
feelings of isolation and inadequacy, as Akerlind & Homquist
(1992) pointed out "Dependence on drugs is, accordingly, an actual
substitute for dependence on others" (p. 407). It may then be
suggested that Non-Ecstasy drug users experience Interpersonal
isolation to be less salient since their reliance on drugs may dull
their need for others or diffuse their perception of their social
alienation. However, Ecstasy users have been reported to
experience interpersonal alienation quite clearly and sharply and
thus seek not only drug use, but drug consumption with others, in
an atmosphere of togetherness, belonging, and enjoying a sense of
a community, albeit a temporary one. Similarly, Ecstasy was found
to facilitate interpersonal relations, enhance communication and
intimacy, and increase self esteem (Solowij, Hall & Lee, 1992; Oh,
2000; Reynolds, 1999). It stands to reason that those who experience
interpersonal alienation most acutely will be particularly drawn to
MDMA.
250

Ecstasy users had a significantly higher mean score on the Self-

alienation subscale than did the other two groups. That subscale
depicted self-detachment, which is often characterised by
numbness, immobilization and denial of the distress inherent in
loneliness. Young adults are said to be occupied with striving to
prepare for a secure future, redefining familial relationships,
building intimate friendships, marriage and family planning,
raising children and caring for elderly parents (Blood, 1972;
Doherty & Jacobson, 1982; Dworetzky, 1991; Glick, 1979). It is little
wonder that very little time is left for young adults to engage in
solitude (Larson, 1990), to get in touch with their deeper feelings
and to reach a true understanding of the meanings and significance
which life events have for them. Naturally, then, they will
experience self-alienation, numbness and the familiar sense of
participation in the "rat race".
Regular Ecstasy users were characterized as individuals to
whom normal life seems dreary and who long for the abandon of
the Rave parties. It was found that alongside the physical attrition
wrecked by the regular use of MDMA (such as weight loss, and
frequent illnesses which may be exacerbated by drug use), the
abuse of Ecstasy may also result in anxiety disorders, panic attacks,
paranoia, and depression (Reynolds, 1999). It is thus suggested
that the enhanced experience of self-alienation may be both a cause
and a result of MDMA use. It has been suggested that drug users in
general, and Ecstasy users in particular feel socially alienated and
possibly alienated from their own needs and feelings (Shedler &
Block, 1990). However, it also appears that the regular use of
MDMA has a significant effect on enhancing emotional conditions
which result in self-alienation. As was found in the present study,
it appears that due to their different emotional needs and
psychological "make up", the Ecstasy users experience a more
pronounced sense of self alienation than youth and young adults
in general, or those that use other, non-Ecstasy drugs in particular.
This study examined the interaction effects of drug use and
gender.
Examining each of the genders and their experiences of
loneliness it was found that both, men and women, experienced
loneliness differently, with Ecstasy users by-and-large scoring
higher than the other two groups. Interestingly, no significant
differences were found, for both genders, on Growth and
discovery. For men, no significant differences were found in Social
inadequacy and alienation as well. In general, these results follow
those of the three population groups, and it may thus be concluded
that being an Ecstasy user, a non-ecstasy user or a young adult who
 251
is not using drugs on a regular basis, affects the "flavour" of one's
loneliness regardless of one's gender. It is consequently interesting
to note that comparing the mean scores of men and women within
the population groups indicated no significant differences, except
in the general population, where women scored higher than men
on Emotional distress. North American women are said to be more
subjective, emotionally sensitive, and tuned into their feelings than
men are (Feldman, 1982; Rokach, 2000). It, thus, stands to reason
that young women would score higher on Emotional distress than
men would.
Future research may compare the loneliness experience of
Ecstasy users to that of other substance users, and examine the
effects of particular substance use on loneliness. It is also of interest
to examine whether Ecstasy users cope with loneliness differently
than the other groups.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very grateful to Tricia Orzeck for her invaluable contribution to the analysis
of the data, and preparation of the manuscript for publication.

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APPENDIX A

The Loneliness Experience - Sample Items

Factor 1: Emotional distress

I experienced feelings of intense hurt (.58)*
I experienced being overwhelmed with feelings of dread (.47)
It felt like my heart was breaking (.65)

Factor 2: Social Alieniation and inadequacy

I felt that people wanted nothing to do with me (.47)
I felt I was boring and uninteresting (.63)
I felt inadequate when interacting with others (.67)

Factor 3: Growth and discovery

I discovered a personal strength I was previously unaware of
(.64)
Life seems richer and more interesting than it was previously
(.70)
I like and appreciate myself more than I did previously (.74)

Factor 4: Interpersonal isolation

I felt I had no one to love or be loved by (.52)
I felt I did not matter to those closest to me (.58)
I felt I had no one I could lean on in a time of need (.64)

Factor 5: Self-alienation
I felt as if my mind and body were in different places (.54)
It felt as if I were in a dream and waiting to awaken (.48)
It felt as if I did not know myself (.48)

*The factor loading of the item.