Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

A review on ultra high performance concrete: Part I. Raw materials

and mixture design
Caijun Shi ⇑, Zemei Wu, Jianfan Xiao, Dehui Wang, Zhengyu Huang, Zhi Fang
College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, PR China

h i g h l i g h t s

Four theoretical principles for production of UHPC, including reduction in porosity, improvement in microstructure, enhancement in homogeneity, and
increase in toughness, are reviewed.

Effects of different raw materials on performance of UHPC are summarized.

Mixture design, sample preparation, and curing regimes are discussed.

Use of conventional materials and common technology are trends for production of UHPC.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) refers to cement-based materials exhibiting compressive
Received 17 September 2014 strength higher than 150 MPa, high ductility, and excellent durability. This paper reviews the theoretical
Received in revised form 28 August 2015 principles, raw materials, mixture design methods, and preparation techniques for UHPC. Reduction in
Accepted 15 October 2015
porosity, improvement in microstructure, enhancement in homogeneity, and increase in toughness are
four basic principles for UHPC design. Raw materials, preparation technique, and curing regimes have
significant influence on properties of UHPC. The use of widely available supplementary cementitious
Keywords:
materials, such as fly ash and slag for partial/complete replacement of cement and silica fume, could
Ultra high performance concrete
Theoretical principles
significantly reduce the materials cost without sacrifice of strength. The use of high temperature curing
Raw materials results in denser microstructure and better performance than room temperature curing does, but
Mixture design obviously limits its applications of UHPC. Thus, preparation of UHPC using widely available raw
Curing regime materials, common technology, such as conventional casting and room temperature curing, are trends
for production of UHPC.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
2. Theoretical principles for production of UHPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
2.1. Reduction in porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
2.1.1. Close packing of raw materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
2.1.2. Water reduction using high performance superplasticizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
2.2. Improvement in microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
2.3. Enhancement in homogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
2.4. Increase in toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
3. Raw materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
3.1. Cementitious components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
3.1.1. Portland cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
3.1.2. Silica fume (SF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
3.1.3. Granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cshi@hnu.edu.cn (C. Shi).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.10.088
0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
742 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751

3.1.4. Fly ash (FA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744

3.1.5. Metakaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
3.1.6. Limestone powder (LP). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
3.1.7. Steel slag powder (SS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
3.1.8. Rice husk ash (RHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
3.1.9. Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
3.2. Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
3.3. Superplasticizers (SP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746
3.4. Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
4. Mixture design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
5. Sample preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
6. Curing regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
6.1. Standard room temperature curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
6.2. Heat curing under atmospheric pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
6.3. Autoclave curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
7. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749

1. Introduction 2. Theoretical principles for production of UHPC

During the past four decades, researchers all over the world 2.1. Reduction in porosity
have been attempted to develop high performance cement-based
materials, which include hot-pressed cement, macro-defect-free Pore structure plays an important role in determining the
cement (MDF) [1], densified with small particles (DSP) [2] and strength of hardened cement-based materials. The pore size
slurry infiltrated fiber concrete (SIFC) [3], etc. Although these distribution, shape and position of pores are also important, but it
materials have excellent performance, they can hardly be used in is both difficult and impractical to include all these parameters.
practice because of complicated forming process and high costs Many experimental results have confirmed that an acceptable
[1–4]. In 1993, Richard et al. [5,6] used components with increased prediction of strength can be obtained by using total porosity.
fineness and reactivity to develop reactive powder concrete (RPC) The most common relationships between porosity and compressive
via thermal treatment. RPC was characterized by high binder con- strength of cement-based materials are [21,22]:
tent, very low water-to-cement ratio (w/c), use of silica fume, fine Balshin’s Equation:
quartz powder and superplasticizer and fibers [7]. It generally has
high mechanical properties (compressive strength over 150 MPa) r ¼ ro  ð1  PÞ A ð1Þ
and ductility [8]. Furthermore, it exhibited high toughness and Ryshkevitch’s Equation:
excellent durability [9]. In the following year, De Larrard [10] intro-
duced the term ‘‘ultra high performance concrete” (UHPC). The r ¼ ro  expðBPÞ ð2Þ
production of UHPC often uses thermal curing at 90 °C or higher, Schiller’s Equation:
vacuum mixing, and pressure before and during the setting.

Although these technical procedures are beneficial to mechanical Po
r ¼ D  ln ð3Þ
properties of UHPC, they can result in low production efficiency P
and high energy consumption [11]. Therefore, more and more
and Hasselmann’s Equation:
researches have been conducted on well-chosen selection of raw
materials, use of common technology, and their influences on the r ¼ ro  ð1  APÞ ð4Þ
microstructural characteristics, mechanical properties and durabil-
ity of UHPC to facilitate the production and applications of UHPC where ro is the compressive strength at zero porosity; P is the
[12,13]. porosity; Po is the porosity at zero strength; r is the compressive
Until now, applications of UHPC in Europe, North America, strength at porosity P; A, B, and D are the experimental constants.
Australia, Asia and New Zealand have been reported [14–16]. The Most other relationships are variations of one of the four types.
pre-stressed hybrid pedestrian bridge, which completed in 1997 Eq. (2) is especially suitable for low porosity systems and Eq. (3)
at Sherbrooke in Canada was the first engineering structure appli- for high porosity systems. All these four equations clearly indicated
cation of UHPC [17,18]. In 1997 and 1998, UHPCs were cast in the lower the porosity is, the higher the strength is.
beams as the first industrial application. In 2001, the first UHPC
road bridge was designed and constructed at Bourg-lès-Valence 2.1.1. Close packing of raw materials
in France [17,19]. However, there are numerous challenges before The porosity and pore size distribution can be effectively
widespread implementation due to lack of commonly accepted improved by the use of superplasticizer, incorporation of very fine
standards for testing methods, design guides for engineers, and reactive mineral admixtures, and close packing of raw materials,
quality control methods in manufacturing facilities [20]. and thus improve the performance of concrete [23,24].
This review includes two parts. This part I reviews the Many close packing models have been proposed, which can be
theoretical principles, raw materials selection, mixture design, classified into discrete and continuous models. Discrete models
and production for UHPC, while part II reviews the hydration, use idealized sets of specifically sized particles in creating packing
microstructure, mechanical properties, dimensional stability, and models, represented by Furnas model [25], Aim and Goff model
durability of UHPC. It is the purpose to summarize the recent [26], Toufar model [27] and so on. These models were established
progress, to provide some insights and suggestions for further based on binary or ternary system, and were not suitable for pack-
research, and to facilitate the applications of UHPC. ing density calculation of concrete [28,29]. Stovall [30] proposed a
 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751
basic multimodal model, i.e., linear packing density model (LPDM),
which considered interactions between size classes of the materi-
als used. LPDM considered the interaction between size classes of
the materials used. De Larrard [10] improved the model by intro-
ducing a concept of virtual packing density, which was the maxi-
mum packing density and was only attainable if the particles are
placed one by one. The improvements of the LPDM resulted in
the solid suspension model (SSM), which includes a virtual packing
factor that accounts for the difference between ideal and random
packing of particles. Later, De Larrard [31] introduced compaction
index (K) to the compressive packing model (CPM). The com-
paction index considers the difference between actual and virtual
packing densities and characterizes therefore the placing process.
Meantime, CPM still uses the packing of mono-sized particle to
predict the packing of mixtures made up of different size particles.
Another possibility for mixture design is based on the investigation
of Fuller and Andreasen and Andersen particle packing model by
an optimal particle size distribution (PSD) of all the applied particle
materials in the mixture. Many researchers have used these differ-
ent packing models as the UHPC design guidelines as discussed
later.
2.1.2. Water reduction using high performance superplasticizer
It is well known that the decrease in w/c will low porosity and
increase strength of hardened cement based-materials [32,33]. The
use of superplasticizer can significantly reduce the required w/c for
a given workability, thus effectively reduce the porosity and
increase the strength of concrete [34,35]. Typical water-to-binder
ratio (w/b) for UHPC ranges between 0.14 and 0.20, instead of
0.4–0.5 for conventional concrete. Selection and use of superplasti-
cizer is a critical step for the production of high quality UHPC.
2.2. Improvement in microstructure
UHPC has a very dense and uniform microstructure due to
following fundamental effects: (1) close packing of solid particles;
(2) hydration and pozzolanic reactions in cementitious materials;
(3) improvement of the interfacial transition zone between
aggregates and bulk matrix. The internal microstructure of UHPC
is mainly comprised of unhydrated cement clinker particles, quartz
sand, and hydration products, such as C–S–H [36]. Low w/b results
in low porosity that restricts the space available for the growth
of calcium hydroxide (CH) crystals. Use of elevated temperature
curing accelerates the hydration of cement, and promotes the
pozzolanic effects of mineral admixtures. There are almost no
pores observed in the nanoporous range with pore sizes up to
100 nm, and no significant CH was detected by X-ray diffraction
(XRD) [12]. The C–S–H in UHPC has high density characterized
by intrinsic higher stiffness and hardness than those of low density
C–S–H that dominates in conventional concrete.
(a) ITZ in Conventional Mortar [39]
Fig. 1. Comparison of SEM observations of ITZ between conventional cement mortar and UHPC.
743
The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregates and
paste matrix has high porosity and CH content, and is the weakest
part in conventional concrete. ITZ in conventional cement mortars
and UHPC from SEM observations are shown in Fig. 1 [37,38]. It can
be seen that ITZ in conventional Portland cement mortar is very
porous. However, owing to the low w/b and pozzolanic reactions
between CH and reactive mineral admixture, which consumes
most of the CH crystals and converts them to C–S–H [6,39], the
ITZ in UHPC seems as dense as the matrix. The homogenous
structure is important for the excellence performance of UHPC.
2.3. Enhancement in homogeneity
Aggregates in conventional concrete usually have higher
hardness than cement paste and act as a skeleton. However, due
to the difference in thermal and mechanical properties between
aggregates and paste matrix, shear and tensile stresses may occur
and result in micro-cracks at the ITZ. The crack size is proportional
to the size of aggregates. During the initial development of UHPC,
quartz sand with diameter of 400 lm [6], instead of coarse aggre-
gates was used, which would significantly decrease the size of
micro-cracks in UHPC. Meantime, the reduction in aggregate size
also decreases the probability of its own defect; thereby reduces
the inhomogeneity of concrete. As discussed above, ITZ in UHPC
looks as the same as matrix, which indicates the homogeneity of
its microstructure.
2.4. Increase in toughness
Toughness is a measure of the energy absorption capacity of a
material, and is used to characterize its ability to resist fracture
[40]. Concrete is a typical quasi-brittle material with low tensile
strength, strain capacity, and fracture toughness. Incorporation of
fibers into concrete can prevent and control initiation, propagation
or coalescence of cracks. When a load acts on fiber reinforced con-
crete, the fibers do not sustain the load directly, but the matrix
does. The load is transferred to the fibers through the interface
between the fibers and the matrix. Fig. 2 demonstrates how fibers
absorb energy and control crack growth [41]. Starting from the
leftmost fiber element and proceeding along the crack towards
the right in the figure, they represent fiber rupture, pullout, bridg-
ing by tension through the fiber, and debonding at the fiber–matrix
interface.
The excellent toughness and impact resistance of UHPC are
attributed to the presence of fibers. At present, the fiber used in
concrete mainly includes carbon and steel fibers. Although the cost
of steel fibers is very high, it can significantly improve the tough-
ness of UHPC. UHPC specimens incorporated with polypropylene
and glass fibers showed lower strength than the control UHPC
did [42].
(b) ITZ in UHPC [40]
744 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751
Fig. 2. Energy-absorbing mechanisms of fiber–matrix [41].
3. Raw materials
The raw materials of UHPC include cementitious component,
quartz powder, quartz sand, superplasticizer, and fibers. Quartz
sand usually has a particle size from 150 to 600 lm and is dimen-
sionally the largest granular material. Powder quartz (PQ) has a
particle size distribution ranging from 0.1 to 100 lm and is gener-
ally considered as an inert filler. Fibers used in UHPC are often
micro steel fibers with length of 13 mm and diameter of 0.2 mm.
Optimization of raw materials results in required performance of
UHPC. The following sections discuss the raw materials of UHPC
in details.
3.1. Cementitious components
Cement content in UHPC is generally about 800–1000 kg/m3.
The high cement content affects not only the production costs,
but also the heat of hydration, and dimensional stability. The fol-
lowing sections will discuss the common cementitious compo-
nents and their effects on the performance of UHPC.
3.1.1. Portland cement
Cement has a low alkali content, low to medium fineness, and a
low C3A-content can reduce water content, ettringite formation,
and heat of hydration [43]. CEM I 52.5, ASTM Types I or II, and
GB P.I cements are recommended to be used for UHPC. There are
also promising tentative with other types of cement. Considering
the fact that the cementitious components in UHPC could not
hydrate completely and act as fillers, Strunge and Deuse [44] uti-
lized microfine cements with particle size between that of Portland
cement and silica fume. Singh [45] prepared highly reactive b-
dicalcium silicate at low temperature by hydrothermal method,
and felt it was suitable for UHPC. However, the belite cement
hydrated slowly and gave very low early strength.
3.1.2. Silica fume (SF)
SF is an industrial byproduct from ferro-silicium alloys produc-
tion and has a typical diameter of 0.2 lm. It is an essential con-
stituent for UHPC. In 1993, Richard et al. [6] proposed that silica
fume content should be around 25% of Portland cement. Chan
[39] concluded that the optimal silica fume content was between
20% and 30% in terms of the bond characteristics. Other researchers
found that the optimum silica fume content was 30–35% of the
cement in UHPC with strength of 200 MPa [39,46]. Actually, the
optimum silica fume content was highly dependent on w/c, and
a lower w/c required lower silica fume content [47]. Under auto-
clave curing condition, if silica fume is absent, rapid generation
of hydration products would result in formation of porous struc-
ture and low compressive strength [48–50].
However, SF has limited output. Meantime, its variable carbon
content can decrease the fluidity of UHPC. High unburnt coal in
silica fume may result in dark surface color of concrete, which is
an aesthetical problem. It has been shown that pulverized granu-
lated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and pulverized fly ash, metakaolin,
limestone powder, and rice husk ash, etc., can be used to replace
silica fume in UHPC [51–53].
3.1.3. Granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)
GGBFS has been used as a supplementary cementitious material
in concrete for many years. Yazici [52] prepared RPC with Portland
cement replaced with 20%, 40%, and 60% GGBFS. The compressive
strength of the RPC with high volume GGBFS was over 250 MPa
after autoclaving, as shown in Fig. 3. When an external pressure
was applied during setting stages, compressive strength could
reach up to 400 MPa.
3.1.4. Fly ash (FA)
FA is a byproduct from coal power station and consists of spher-
ical particles. It is usually combined with GGBFS, SF and/or steel
slag powder (SS), etc., as a binary, ternary or quaternary system.
Yazici et al. [53,54] found that the compressive strength of UHPC
containing high content of GGBFS and fly ash reached over
200 MPa after standard room curing, 234 MPa after steam curing,
and 250 MPa after autoclave curing. The combination of GGBFS
and fly ash can enhance flexural strength, and significantly
improve the toughness of concrete after all curing regimes. How-
ever, it decreased the modulus of elasticity of RPC, especially with
more than 30% replacement of cement. Peng et al. [55] found that
the utilization of ultra-fine fly ash (UFFA) and steel slag powder
(SS) in UHPC was feasible and the optimum SS/UFFA ratio was
1.5 for UHRC with the highest strength. For specimens containing
18% SS, 12% UFFA, 15% SF, and 2% steel fiber by volume, their
compressive and flexural strengths reached 188.4 and 32 MPa,
respectively, after 90 °C of water curing for 3 days. Microstructure
examinations demonstrated that the excellent mechanical proper-
ties mainly resulted from the sequential hydration and filling effect
of cementing components.
3.1.5. Metakaolin
Metakaolin is made by calcining of natural clay. Its pozzolanic
reactivity is mainly controlled by calcining temperature [56]. Use
of metakaolin powder can reduce autogenous shrinkage, refine
pore structure, and improve early strength and durability of
concrete [56–58]. Zheng [56] and Ma [57] prepared UHPC with
metakaolin substituted for silica fume. They found that the
Fig. 3. The effect of GGBFS content on compressive strength of RPC (STD: Standard
curing, SC: Steam curing, AC: Autoclave curing) [52].
 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751 745

compressive strength of UHPC specimens decreased with the

increasing proportion of metakaolin. Tafraoui et al. [58] found that
the substitution of silica fume by metakaolin led to a negligible
increase in flexural strength (+2.6%) and a slight decrease in
compressive strength (6.7%). However, its availability and low
price would favor its use for the manufacture of the UHPC.
Meantime, its white color can be an esthetic advantage.

3.1.6. Limestone powder (LP)

As a non-pozzolanic mineral admixture, use of LP can improve
the fluidity of concrete [59,60]. Wang et al. [61] found that the
UHPC containing cement, SF, GGBS, and LP demonstrated excellent
fluidity. The concrete with 20% LP, 10% SF, and 20% GGBS had
higher strength than that without LP at 28 d due to accelerated
hydration of cement and silica fume [59,60], which favored the
improved structure and performance of concrete [62]. Moreover,
LP had a positive effect on the generation of C–S–H gel [63,64].
3.1.7. Steel slag powder (SS)
SS is a byproduct of steel-making process. It contains a certain
amount of C3S and C2S. Ning [65] prepared steel fiber reinforced
reactive powder concrete (SFRPC) by substituting SS for part of
cement and obtained a compressive strength of 197 MPa after
autoclaving curing. Since the high density of steel slag, replace-
ment of cement with SS usually results in better fluidity of fresh
concrete. In addition, curing regimes have a great effect on the
strength development RPC with steel slag because high tempera-
ture can stimulate the activity of SS. SEM observation showed that
the crystalline hydration products in RPC with steel slag was bigger
than that in the control RPC and the quantity of mellar Ca(OH)2
was more [65].
3.1.8. Rice husk ash (RHA)
RHA is an agricultural waste obtained by burning rice husk.
When husk is completely incinerated in controlled conditions, it
contains 90–96% silica in amorphous form and can be considered
as a highly active pozzolans. The average particle size of RHA
usually ranges from 5 to 10 lm with a very high specific surface
area (even more than 250 m2/g). This high surface area comes from
the angular and porous structure of RHA, as shown in Fig. 4 [66,67].
Tuan et al. [66,67] found that the UHPC incorporated with RHA
with mean size between 3.6 and 9 lm, achieved compressive
strength in excess of 150 MPa after normal curing regime, as
shown in Fig. 5. The specimens with mean particle size of 3.6 lm
reached 180 and 210 MPa at 28 and 91 days.
Fig. 5. Compressive strength of UHPC with 20% RHA of different particle sizes vs.
time, w/b ratio = 0.18 [66].
Tuan [66,67] also reported that UHPC with a combination of
10% RHA and 10% SF showed higher compressive strength than
those without RHA or using other combinations. The author attrib-
uted this to physical filling and water well effects of RHA because
its particle size is between cement and silica fume particles, and its
porous structure can absorb certain amount of water for the later
hydration of cement.
Ha et al. [68] found that the combination of RHA and FA
improved not only self-compactability, but also compressive
strength. The mixture containing 20% FA and 10% RHA demon-
strated similar self-compactability and higher long term compres-
sive strength compared with the corresponding mixture containing
SF or FA alone. An et al. [47] suggested that RHA with mean particle
size of 7.41 lm was suitable for complete replacement of SF. They
found that the ternary binder composed of 65% cement, 15% RHA,
and 20% GGBS achieved the highest compressive strength.
3.1.9. Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles, including nano-silica (nano-SiO2), nano-CaCO3,
nano-titanium oxide (Nano-TiO2), and nano-iron (Nano-Fe2O3),
etc., have been added to UHPC. They have an obviously high
surface area to volume ratio compared with other materials of
concrete, as shown in Fig. 6 [69]. Meantime, they can act as nuclei
for cement phases, further promoting cement hydration due to
their high reactivity, and as nano-reinforcement and/or as filler,
densifying the microstructure and the ITZ, thereby, leading to a
reduced porosity [70].

Fig. 4. SEM picture of RHA [66]. Fig. 6. Particle size and specific surface area related to concrete materials [69].
746 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751
Recent researches showed that the use of proper quantities of
nano-SiO2 (NS) could increase the compressive and bending
strengths of UHPC. The compressive and flexural strengths of UHPC
with nano-CaCO3 (NC) increased by 16.7% and 39.0% respectively
after hot water curing [71]. MIP measurements revealed that the
capillary pores of UHPC with 5% NS was 35% lower than that of
the control mixture. SEM observation proved that NS could
efficiently improve the microstructure of ITZ between the
aggregates and the cement paste [72]. Carbon nanotubes could
introduce piezoresistivity and make UHPC a self-sensing
material [73]. TiO2 nanoparticles could introduce self-healing and
smog-eating capabilities through photocatalysis [74]. However,
the effective dispersion of nanoparticles in concrete needs to be
solved.
3.2. Aggregates
Generally, aggregates are relatively inexpensive concrete-
making material. Refined quartz sand with diameter less than
0.6 mm was initially used in initial UHPC to achieve better perfor-
mance, but its cost is high. In order to reduce the cost of UHPC,
recycled glass cullet, natural sands, and artificial aggregates were
used as replacements for refined quartz sand [75,76]. The use of
Fig. 7. Compressive strength of UHPC with different tailing contents [77].
(a) Setting behavior
Fig. 8. Effect of different superplasticizers on fresh and harden properties of UHPC [83].
recycled glass cullet (RGC) decreased flexural strength, compres-
sive strength, and fracture energy by approximately 15%, while
natural sand resulted in similar mechanical properties and ductil-
ity as the refined quartz sand did [75].
Zhao et al. [77] used iron ore tailings to replace natural sand at
various replacement levels, as shown in Fig. 7. When the tailing
content was less than 40%, the UHPC specimens showed compara-
ble mechanical properties to the control specimens after 90 days
standard room curing. After 2 days steam curing, the compressive
strengths decreased by less than 11% while the flexural strengths
increased by 8%. Therefore, iron ore tailings have the potential to
be used as fine aggregate of UHPC because they are relatively inert
and the particle size is significantly bigger than that of cement.
Collepardi et al. [78] used crushed basalt with diameter less
than 8 mm to replace part or all of the refined quartz sand to pro-
duce UHPC, and obtain comparable compressive strength. Other
researchers [61,79] used crushing basalt and limestone less than
20 mm as coarse aggregate, and got very promising results. This
indicates that the key is to eliminate the defects caused by coarse
aggregate rather than to remove it.
Monosi et al. [80] used ground Portland clinker with similar
particle size distribution of natural fine quartz (100–400 lm) and
limestone gravel (0.1–8 mm) respectively as aggregates. They
found that the compressive strength of UHPC increased by about
20 MPa when clinker aggregates were used instead of natural
aggregates.
3.3. Superplasticizers (SP)
Typical w/c in UHPC lies in the range of 0.14–0.20. Polycarboxy-
lates (PCs) was the most effective SP for UHPC [81]. It was reported
that the length of the side chain mainly influenced retardation time
and the workability was mainly controlled by the side chain den-
sity [82]. Hirschi [83] investigated eight types of PC based super-
plasticizers on fresh and harden properties of UHPC, as shown in
Fig. 8. The setting time showed significantly variations and a good
indication for the early strength development. Mixtures incorpo-
rated with P5 and P11 with long side chain length showed the
highest early strength among those with medium side chain
length. The compressive strength corresponded very well with
the flexural strength. Courtial [84] studied the effect of PC dosages
in the range of 0.5–2.0% on the microstructure of UHPC, and found
that the belite phase content significantly decreased when the
addition of PC dosage varied from 1.8% to 1.2%.
(b) Compressive strength
 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751 747

Table 1
Typical properties of fibers.

Type Diameter (lm) Relative density (g cm3) Tensile strength (MPa) Young modulus (GPa) Elongation (%)
Asbestos 60.5 2.75 500–980 84–140 0.3–0.6
Acrylic 5–17 1.18 800–950 16–23 9–11
Polyester 10–80 1.38 735–1200 6–18 11–15
Polyethylene 800–1000 0.96 200–300 5–6 3–4
Polypropylene 20–70 0.91 300–770 3.5–11 15–25
Nylon 23 1.16 900–960 4.2–5.2 18–20
PVA 1.30 1.30 600–2500 5–50 6–17
Aramid 10–12 1.44 2500–3100 60–120 2.1–4.5
Rock wool 2.7 2.7 490–770 70–119 0.6
Glass 10–16 2.74 1400–2500 70–80 2.5–3.5
Wood 25–400 1.40 50–1000 15–40 –
Carbon 7–18 1.75 1800–4000 200–480 1.2–1.6
Steel 250–1000 7.80 280–2800 200–250 0.5–4.0

The addition procedure of SP also influenced the workability of
fresh UHPC [85]. Stepwise addition remarkably enhanced the
dispersing effect of SP, and increased the flowability of UHPC,
compared with the one time direct addition.
Compatibility between SP and cementitious materials is often
an issue. Schröfl et al. [81] investigated the interaction between
various superplasticizers (methacrylic acid ester-based and
allylether-based PCEs) and cement as well as silica fume in UHPC.
They found that methacrylate-based PC strongly interacted with
cement, whereas allylether-based PCs were more effective with sil-
ica fume. The combination of the two PCs showed a significantly
better dispersion than that using single type. UHPC with limestone
microfiller demonstrated a good fluidity compared with those with
metakaolin, pulverized fly ash and siliceous microfiller at the same
content of SP. When cement replacement by SF was increased to
from 30% to 40%, the amount of SP increased dramatically from
1.43% to 2.38% [66].
3.4. Fibers
As mentioned above, the excellent ductability and impact
resistance of UHPC are attributed to the use of proper fibers. Table 1
shows the typical properties of the commonly used fibers in con-
crete. Steel and carbon fibers are commonly used in UHPC matrices
because of their superior tensile strengths.
Yang [42] found steel fibers significantly enhanced the mechan-
ical properties, but polypropylene and glass fibers did not
improved the strengths due to their low strengths. The tensile
strength of ultra high performance fiber reinforced concrete
(UHPFRC) linearly increased with increased fiber volume ratio
from 0% to 5% [86]. Incorporation of 2% steel fibers by volume
decreased autogenous shrinkage by 42% at 14 days of thermal
treatment [87]. The increased amount of fibers increased the inter-
action of fibers with each other during mixing, caused balling and
decreased the workability of the mixture, and hence the mechani-
cal performances as well as [88].
In order to minimize the amounts of fiber and achieve desired
performance, combination of two or three different fibers in UHPC
matrix were applied [89]. Park et al. [90] found UHPC incorporated
with 1.0% macro steel fibers and more than 0.5% micro steel fibers
could cause tensile strain hardening behavior, as shown in Fig. 9.
UHPFRC with twisted macro-fibers had the best tensile perfor-
mance, with post cracking strength, strain capacity, and multiple
micro-cracking behavior of 18.6 MPa, 0.64%, and 3.8 mm, respec-
tively, whereas that with long smooth one exhibited the worst per-
formance. Kim et al. [91] studied the effects of combinations of
micro and macro fibers on the flexural performance of UHPFRC,
and obtained the following order of flexural performance: hooked
B (HB) > twisted (T) > long smooth (LS) > hooked A (HA) fiber. The
deflection capacity dMOR and energy absorption capacity TMOR of
UHPFRC with combinations of 1.0% micro and 1.0% macro fibers
was 45.4–75.9% and 48.7–67.9% greater than those with 2.0% micro
fibers. Distribution and orientation of the fibers also had consider-
able effect on mechanical properties of UHPFRC [92,93]. The initial
cracking and ultimate flexural strengths of UHPC placed parallel to
the longitudinal direction were 5.5% and 61% larger than that
placed transversely [93].
4. Mixture design
Mixture design is a selection of raw materials in optimum
proportions to give concrete with required properties in fresh
and hardened states for particular applications. The design of UHPC
aims to achieve a densely compacted cementitious matrix with
good workability and strength. In most publications, the mixture
proportions of UHPC are given directly without any design proce-
dures or explanation.
Some people [94,95] used modified Andreasen and Andersen
model as a target function for the optimization of the composition
of mixture of granular materials. The equation is shown as follows:
Dqi  Dqmin
PðDi Þ ¼ ð5Þ
Dqmax  Dqmin
where P(Di) is the fraction of the total solids being smaller than size
Di, Di is the particle size (lm), Dmax and Dmin is the maximum and
minimum particle size (lm) respectively, and q is the distribution
modulus.
Different types of concrete can be designed using Eq. (5) by
applying different distribution modulus q, as it determines the
proportion between the fine and coarse particles in the mixture.
Hunger [96] recommended using a q value 0.23 considering that
a large amount of fine particles in UHPC [94].
The proportions of each individual material in the mixture are
adjusted until an optimum fit between the composed mixture
and the target curves is reached, using an optimization algorithm
based on the Least Squares Method (LSM), as presented in Eq. (6).
X
n
RSS ¼ ½Pmix ðDi Þ  P tar ðDi Þ2 ! min ð6Þ
i¼1
where Pmix is the composed mixture, and Ptar is the target grading
calculated from Eq. (5).
When the deviation between the target and the composed mix-
ture curves, expressed by the sum of the squares of the residuals
(RSSs) at defined particle sizes, is minimized, the composition of
the concrete is treated as the best one. This mixture design method
is often carried out through software such as Matlab. The obtained
mixture proportion of UHPC is verified by experiments.
748 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751
Fig. 9. Typical tensile strain softening and hardening behavior of FRC [90].
Van and Ludwig [47] adopted D-optimal design to design UHPC
mixtures by using software Design-Expert 8. Results showed the
mixtures with the highest strength were very close to those con-
cluded from computer program.
Under the guidance of CPM density model, Gong [97] studied
the dense packing effect of the gradation of mineral powders and
found that the filling effect became more prominent with the
decrease of w/c. Yu et al. [94] produced a dense and homogeneous
skeleton of UHPC with a relatively low binder content (about
650 kg/m3) using the modified Andreasen and Andersen particle
packing model. After rough estimation of packing density using
Aim and Goff’model, Long [98] discovered that with the decrease
of the ratio of the small particles to large ones, the packing density
of RPC increased. There was an optimum volume fraction of fine
particles, where the bulk density reached the maximum packing.
Experimental results showed that the physical filling effect of
RPC could be comparable with that by lowering w/c within a cer-
tain range [98].
5. Sample preparation
During sample preparation, use of external or internal energy,
such as vacuum mixing, and pressure before and during setting,
is an effective way to reduce the volume of pores and obtain
desired mechanical property of UHPC [99,100]. Dils et al. [101]
used vacuum mixing with three different pressure levels, vacuum
(100 mbar), semi-vacuum (500 mbar), and atmospheric pressure
(1013 mbar), and found that the compressive strength clearly
increased with decreased mixing pressure and the lowered pres-
sure caused a decrease in air content of concrete. Ipek et al. [102]
applied pre-setting pressure to RPC, the results shown that the unit
weight value of RPC with pre-setting pressure at 5 MPa was
2585 kg/m3, increased by 3.5% compared to 2498 kg/m3 without
pressure. It increased almost 1% in each pre-setting pressure inter-
val until reached 25 MPa. Compared with control RPC, the unit
weight value and volume of RPC after 25 MPa of pre-setting
increased by 8.6% (2712 kg/m3) and decreased 7.9% in total respec-
tively. Meantime, pre-setting pressure also significantly improved
the strengths of RPC, toughness, and young’s modulus [53]. When
the samples were pre-setting pressurized at 25 MPa, their com-
pressive strengths and young’s modulus reached 420.31 MPa and
84 GPa, respectively, while for those without pre-setting pressur-
ized were 206.36 MPa and 58 GPa [53]. However, these sophisti-
cated technologies are too costly to meet the demand of large-
scale project engineering.
Currently, the ingredients of UHPC are mixed, cast, and vibrated
like conventional concrete, as shown in Fig. 10. Dry powder compo-
nents are mixed for about 10 min, water and superplasticizer are
then added and mixed for about 5–10 min. Fibers are added if
needed when mortar matrix show appropriate flow ability for good
workability and adequate viscosity. In the case of incorporation of
hybrid fibers with different size, micro fibers are added first by hand
into the mortar mixture and then macro fibers are dispersed [91].
6. Curing regime
Standard room temperature curing, heat curing under atmo-
spheric pressure, and autoclave curing regimes are often used for
production of UHPC. The following sections briefly discuss the
research progresses.
6.1. Standard room temperature curing
Standard room temperature curing is the most common, eco-
nomical, and environmentally friendly process, which can be
applied to practice. Researches on hydration and pozzolanic reac-
tion of RPC showed that the average C–S–H chain length was short
Cement Water
Silica fume +
Steel fiber Manufacture
Filling powder Superplasticizer
Sand
Fig. 10. Mixing methods of UHPC.
 C. Shi et al. / Construction and Building Materials 101 (2015) 741–751
Fig. 11. Effects of different curing on interfacial bonding strength between fiber and
various matrices [103].
and the pozzolanic activity was weak when the curing temperature
was 20 °C [103]. If the curing ages was reasonably prolonged, the
compressive strength of UHPC could also reach to 200 MPa [103].
6.2. Heat curing under atmospheric pressure
Through 24 h steam curing, about 15–30 MPa compressive
strength could be further gained when compared to that after
28 d of standard room temperature curing [103]. Steam curing at
90 °C for 12 d improved the compressive strengths of all mixtures
with respect to standard room temperature curing. The effect on
flexural strength showed a similar trend as that on compressive
strength, but the influence degree on flexural strength was greater
[105]. As the temperature increased to 90 °C, it was important to
prolong the heat curing duration time which influenced not only
the pozzolanic activity of both silica fume and crushed quartz,
but also increased the chain length of C–S–H [104].
6.3. Autoclave curing
The compressive strength of UHPC after autoclave curing was
higher than those after standard room temperature curing and
heat curing (90 °C). It was only through 8 h autoclave curing that
over 200 MPa compressive strength could be achieved for UHPFC
with 3% or 4% fiber [75]. Yazici [105] found that compressive
strengths at UHPC mixtures with high volume mineral admixtures
after 8 h of high-pressure steam curing at 210 °C were higher than
specimens cured in water at room temperature. Massidda et al.
[106] found that the flexural strength of specimens reached
30 MPa after 3 h of high-pressure steam curing. However, Yazici
[54] found that autoclave curing greatly reduced the flexural
strength compared with those after 28 d of standard room temper-
ature curing. As shown in Fig. 11, the interfacial bond strength after
autoclave curing achieved 14.2 MPa, higher than that after steam
curing or standard room temperature curing [103].
Curing regimes also affect shrinkage and creep of UHPC.
Approximately 87% of the total autogenous shrinkage occurred
during the thermal treatment due to accelerated rate of early
hydration at higher temperature [87]. However, its complicated
operation and high energy consumption limit its application in
practice. Development of UHPC production at room temperature
is a key for its wide applications.
7. Summary
UHPC exhibits very high strength, good toughness, and excel-
lent durability. Based on the review and discussions above, it can
be summarized as follows:
749
(1) The main principles for UHPC design are reduction in poros-
ity, improvement in microstructure, enhancement in homo-
geneity, and increase in toughness. Raw materials,
preparation technique and curing regimes have significant
influence on properties of UHPC.
(2) The use of widely available supplementary cementitious
materials, such as fly ash and slag for complete/partial
replacement of cement and silica fume, could significantly
reduce the materials cost of UHPC. At the same time, UHPC
with proper amount of those supplementary cementitious
materials could achieve compressive strength of 150–
200 MPa after normal curing regime.
(3) The use of conventional river sand to replace refined quartz
sand could result in similar mechanical properties and duc-
tility as the refined quartz sand did. In addition, the incorpo-
ration of coarse aggregate could also give very promising
results.
(4) The length of the side chain, addition dosages and procedure
of polycarboxylates (PCEs) have an important influence on
the performance of fresh and harden UHPC. PCEs with long
side chain length gave the highest early strength.
(5) Steel fibers are commonly used in UHPC matrices. Proper
fiber dosage could enhance the mechanical performances,
and decrease autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. Moreover, a
combination of macro steel fibers and micro steel fibers
could produce tensile strain hardening behavior. However,
the increased amount of fibers could cause balling, and
decrease the workability of the mixture.
(6) High temperature curing are beneficial to the pozzolanic
reactions between CH from the hydration of cement and
supplementary cementitious materials such as silica fume,
which improves the microstructure, and hence results in
higher strength. It also increases the chain length of C–S–H.
(7) Most current applications of UHPC are accomplished by fac-
tory pre-fabrication and on-site assembling. In consideration
of the high cost and complexity of curing process, use of con-
ventional materials and common technology, such as con-
ventional casting and room temperature curing are the
trends for UHPC.
Acknowledgment
Financial support from National Science Foundation of China
under contract Nos. 51378196 and U1305243 is greatly
appreciated.
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