Housing Design

Bowling Green State University
ScholarWorks@BGSU
Master of Technology Management Plan II College of Technology, Architecture and Applied
Graduate Projects Engineering
Spring 2012
A Model of Housing Design and Neighborhood

Planning in Abuja - Nigeria
Ekanem Amba
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/ms_tech_mngmt

Part of the Civil and Environmental Engineering Commons, and the Construction Engineering
Commons
Recommended Citation
Amba, Ekanem, "A Model of Housing Design and Neighborhood Planning in Abuja - Nigeria" (2012). Master of Technology
Management Plan II Graduate Projects. 8.
https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/ms_tech_mngmt/8
This Dissertation/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Technology, Architecture and Applied Engineering at
ScholarWorks@BGSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master of Technology Management Plan II Graduate Projects by an authorized
administrator of ScholarWorks@BGSU.
A MODEL OF HOUSING DESIGN AND NEIGHBORHOOD PLANNING
IN ABUJA – NIGERIA.
By:
Ekanem Etim Amba
A Project Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT
May, 2012.
Committee:
Dr. Wilfred H. Roudebush, (Chair)
Dr. C. Wayne Unsell
Dr. Alan Atalah

ABSTRACT
The need for shelter is one of the most important necessities for mankind after sustenance. Over
the years, the term ‘shelter’ has undergone series of modification either in shape, space, location
or the materials used in constructing them but one thing remains the same; the need for a roof
over one’s head is as vital to survival as time in itself. It is an established fact that the early man
relied on materials found in his surroundings to provide shelter for him. The techniques
employed ranged from earth sheltering to ‘green constructions’ even before the term was coined.
The coming of the industrial revolution in the 19th century changed the face of housing in the
world forever by creating new possibilities, techniques and materials that were otherwise not
readily available. With this came an increase in pollution in the environment which brought
about the need for a control system to monitor how much pollution was allowed into the
environment in the United States. The world energy crisis led to research into alternative energy
creation and conservation options and in 1998 US Green Building Council (USGBC) LEED®
was created to serve as a rating system for buildings that complied with their standards.
The lack of affordable housing in the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja - Nigeria continues
to remain unsolved with very high cost of available housing thereby disallowing low-income
earners access to decent living. Quite a large number of these people reside in satellite towns
where the absence of basic amenities such as potable drinking water, constant electricity, and
hygienic sanitary facilities including waste management is not an uncommon sight in these areas.
This project develops a model of housing and neighborhood development that can function
independently by creating housing from materials locally sourced, creating small industries that
can provide jobs, incorporate agriculture to sustain the community and housing for its residents,
recycle and manage waste, and grow agricultural products.
i
DEDICATION
To God Almighty who is always with me.
Special thanks to my father and mother Dr. Etim & Dr. (Mrs.) Aruk Amba, who encouraged me
to be the best I can be and not be afraid to try.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere appreciation goes to the following people who have guided me, and steered me in the
right direction during the course of this study. Their ideas, viewpoints and healthy critique have
helped in making this project a success.
Dr. Wilfred Roudebush

Associate Professor
Construction Management Department
Bowling Green, Ohio.
Dr. Alan Atalah

Associate Dean
Dr. C. Wayne Unsell

Professor
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1
Context of the Problem……………………………………………………….1
General Characteristics of Satellite Towns in the FCT – Abuja……………..5
Statement of the Problem…………….……………………………………….7
Objectives of the Study……………………………………………………….7
Significance of the Study……………………………………………………..8
Assumptions / Limitations……………………………………………………9
Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………...10
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Historical Context……………………………………………………………..12
Relevant Theory……………..………………………………………………...12
Housing System in Nigeria………………….………………………………...13
Monetization in the Nigerian Civil Service…………………………………...14
Demolition in the FCT……………………………………….………………..15
Existing Housing Conditions and Energy Concerns…….………………….…16
iv
Financial Concerns of Low Income Earners…………..……………………….16
What is USGBC LEED®? ...............................................................................18
LEED Phases…………………………………………….…..…………………20
Green Buildings………………………………………………………………..23
Pattern Language……………………………………………………………....23
CHAPTER III. METHODS
Restatement of the Problem……………………………………………………25
Restatement of the Objectives………………………………………………….25
Research Procedure…………………………………………………………….26
CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS
Restatement of the Problem……………………………………………………29
Green Neighborhood Development USGBC LEED-ND®……………………29
Neighborhood Pattern and Design……………………………………………..31
Green Infrastructure and Building……………………………………………...33
LEED® Homes Reference Guide………………………………………………37
Regional Materials and Resources easily sought in the FCT – Abuja…………42
v
Requirements Needed to Improve the Quality of life In Low Income
Areas of the FCT ………………………………………………..…….47
New Innovations that can be incorporated in the Proposed Housing Design…47
Management structure for the facility that will include income generation,
Maintenance, security and regulation policies…………………………………47
Selected Patterns from A Pattern language…………………………………….52
NAHB Green Homes…………………………………………………………...56
Schematic Design of Residential Units…………………………………………62
CHAPTER V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Summary………………………………………………………………………..68
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………69
Future Research…………………………………………………………………69
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………71
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Showing Map of the FCT – Abuja, Nigeria………………………………………….6
Figure 2. Showing Different Kinds of Marble………………………………………………….43
Figure 3. Showing Tin in its Raw Form………………………………………………………..44
Figure 4. Showing Manually Cut Stone from Rock…………………………………………....45
Figure 5. Showing Wolframite and Tantalite…………………………………………………..45
Figure 6. Showing Red Clay Deposits…………………………………………………………46
Figure 7. Showing the Facility Management Structure for the Project………………………..48
Figure 8. Illustrating the Neighborhood Boundary Pattern Using a Classic Microscopic Cell
Wall…………………………………………………………………………………….54
Figure 9. Showing Individually Owned Shops………………………………….………………
Figure 10. Showing the Number of Stories Pattern………………………………………………
Figure 11. Illustrating Positive and Negative Outdoor Spaces as seen in Plan View………….55
Figure 12. Showing the Long Thin House Pattern……………………………….……………56
vii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Context of the Problem
Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic
comprising of 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West
Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin to the west, Chad and Cameroon to
the east, and the nation of Niger to the north. Its coast to the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea on
the Atlantic Ocean. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa,
Igbo and Yoruba. In terms of religion Nigeria is roughly split half and half between Muslims and
Christians with a very small minority who practice a traditional religion. Nigeria is the most
populous country in Africa, the seventh most populous country in the world, and the most
populous country in the world in which the majority of the population is black. It is listed among
the "Next Eleven" economies, and is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The economy
of Nigeria is one of the fastest growing in the world, with the International Monetary Fund
projecting a growth of 9% in 2008 and 8.3% in 2009. The IMF further projects an 8% growth in
the Nigerian economy in 2011. Nigeria, (2012).
Abuja is the capital city of Nigeria. It is located in the center of Nigeria, within the
Federal Capital Territory (FCT). Abuja is a planned city, and was built mainly in the 1980s. It
officially became Nigeria's capital on 12 December 1991, replacing Lagos. At the 2006 census,
the city of Abuja had a population of 776,298. Abuja, (www.wikipedia.com). According to the
CIA World Fact book, the population of Abuja as of 2009 was 1.857 million and continues to
increase annually. Nigeria (2012).
1
Abuja is a planned city, originally designed by a group of American firms in the 1970s. It
was meant to present an orderly gloss on Nigeria's vibrant but chaotic reputation. No place
represents that image more fully than Lagos, the former capital, with its legendary go- slows —
or traffic jams — jumbles of shacks next to office towers, and streets overflowing with garbage
and sewage. Abuja, by contrast, was to have none of those problems. The master plan would
ensure that Abuja would be a tranquil oasis in the center of a cacophonous nation. According to
Polygreen, in the interest of cultivating an image of a world-class city, comparable to London,
Paris, New York or Hong Kong, the government has been razing unauthorized and unsightly
slums, clearing out street hawkers and banishing popular and cheap motorcycle taxis, all in the
name of spiffing up the city. Polygreen (2006).
The provision of adequate housing for the growing populace has been an issue for third
world and developing countries with such factors as lack of employment, poor economic
strength, lack of basic social amenities (potable drinking water, constant electricity supply and
access to healthcare) and population explosion amongst others. The FCT has not been spared the
effects of population explosion and the issue of efficient and affordable housing. An international
labor organization researcher has estimated that the formal housing markets in the Third World
rarely supply more than 20 percent of new housing stock; out of necessity, people turn to self-
built shanties, informal rentals, private subdivisions, or the sidewalks. Davis (2006).
The high cost of living in Abuja has pushed lower income earners into abject poverty and
living conditions that are unhygienic and unsafe. The migration of people in large numbers from
rural farmlands to the city in search of white collar jobs in order to provide for their families puts
a strain on the available resources in the city. Many of the people forced to dwell in slums are
squatters, lacking legal leases or legal title to their homes. To the outsider, ‘many developing-
2
world slums look unbearably awful’ as stated by Eaves (2007); but to their residents they do
function, complete with social hierarchies, commerce and a degree of a home-grown
government. Still, when one sees a family living in a flyblown concrete cell in Karachi, inside a
mud hut in Nairobi or in a cardboard shack in Lagos, one might be inclined to ask, are they really
better off than in the villages they fled? According to the U.N., researchers estimate that there
were at least 921 million slum dwellers in 2001 and more than 1 billion in 2005, with slum
population growing by a staggering 25 million per year in developing countries. These statistics
are alarming and should be a cause for concern to governments and leaders.
The term ‘slum’ whether it be a ‘Favela de Rocinha’ (a Portuguese language word for
Brazilian shantytown), a skid row (a run-down or dilapidated urban area with a large,
impoverished population), the Dharavi slum, Mumbai-India, Barrio (A lower-class neighborhood
with largely Spanish speaking residents basically the Latino equivalent of a ‘ghetto’), Lagos
slums or the growing slums in Abuja, they all have similar characteristics and can be defined as a
thickly populated, run-down, squalid part of a city, inhabited by poor people. Sethuranam stated
that ‘By nature, these housing units are constructed using less expensive construction materials
(i.e. mud, bricks, bamboo, ordinary wood) and hence tend to have a shorter life’ Sethuranam
(1985). ‘Everyday, around the world’ according to public-expert Eileen Stillwaggon, ‘illnesses
related to water supply, waste disposal and garbage kill 30,000 people and constitute 75 percent
of the illnesses that afflict humanity’ Stillwaggon (2010).
The characteristics of slums vary from place to place. Many slum dwellers are in fact
entrepreneurs, albeit very small. They recycle trash, sell vegetables and basic household items,
and do laundry. Some even run tiny restaurants and bars for their neighbors. Slums are
commonly seen as breeding grounds for social problems such as crime, prostitution, drug
3
addiction, alcoholism, disease and death. Smith (2004) stated ‘the world can be divided not into
two distinctions (developed and developing) but three: developed, developing and fusion. For
affordable housing and community development, fusion countries are arguably the place where
the most benefit can be delivered because the challenges are huge, but there is indigenous
commitment and capacity, if it can be levered. A fusion country mixes first-world financial
capacity, at least in small enclaves, that can be applied to certain sectors and third-world housing
challenges, often with rapid job or population growth’.
A satellite town or satellite city is a concept in urban planning that refers essentially to
smaller metropolitan areas which are located somewhat near to, but are mostly independently of,
larger metropolitan areas. (Satellite town, www.wikipedia.com). The City of Abuja consist of
eight major satellite towns; Mpape, Maraba, Masaka, Suleija, Lugbe, Kubwa, Dei-Dei and
Dutse. Other smaller towns are Karu, Jikwoyi, Nyanya and Madala. In an attempt to beat the
exorbitant costs of living in the city, a vast number of people have resorted to living in these
neighboring towns from where they embark on arduous commuting on a daily basis. Livings in
these satellite towns are not without setbacks which range from poor urban planning and a road
network resulting in bad traffic, theft, poor water supply, poor layout, waste management and
poor power supply. At the end of the day, one often wonders if it is worth all the hassle.
General Characteristics of Satellite Towns in the FCT - Abuja.
The FCT - Abuja has an average high temperature of 38.2oc (99.1oF) and an average low
of 23.2oc (74.1oF). Due to the hilly and mountainous nature of Abuja city, orographic activities
bring heavy and frequent rainfall of about 1,500 mm (59.1 in) during the rainy season. Beginning
in March and continuing until November, the rainy season peaks in September, during which
4
time abundant rainfall is received in the form of heavy downpours. The FCT falls within the
Guinean forest-savanna mosaic zone of the West African sub-region. Patches of rain forest,
however, occur in the Gwagwa plains, especially in the rugged terrain to the south southeastern
parts of the territory, where a landscape of gullies and rough terrain is found. These areas of the
FCT form one of the few surviving occurrences of the mature forest vegetation in Nigeria. Abuja
District. (www.wikipedia.com).
There are five suburban districts in the FCT namely: Nyanya, Karu, Gwagwalada,
Kubwa, and Jukwoyi. Along the Airport Road are clusters of satellite settlements, namely Lugbe,
Chika, Kuchigworo and Pyakassa. Other satellite settlements are Idu (the main industrial zone),
Mpape, Karimu, Gwagwa, Dei-Dei (housing the international livestock market and also
international building materials market). Poor road networks, inefficient waste collection and
management are not uncommon sights in these areas; causing safety and security issues.
Unfortunately, these areas are prone to constant power outages that last as long as 14hours each
day. A majority of the residents are not connected to the grid system. Abuja.
(www.wikipedia.com). Hence, residents are forced to purchase private generator plants in order
to supplement needs. A study carried out by Malachy,(1998) stated ‘The central district which
accommodates the seat of power and the eye catching edifices of Nigeria’s super rich is
sparkling clean, but not so its satellite towns which are somewhat neglected’.
5
Figure 1. Map of FCT-Abuja taken from Google Earth
Statement of the Problem
Exploring an innovative way of reducing slums in the FCT- Abuja Nigeria by developing
a model of housing design and neighborhood planning. This will be achieved by incorporating
green building principles, USGBC LEED® Homes application principles, LEED® Neighborhood
principles and A Pattern Language developed by Alexander et al (1977), as a means to reduce
the growth of slums and shantytowns. These neighborhood complexes will include water pumps,
adequate sanitary facilities, photovoltaic solar panels, recycling and management of sewage
waste and garbage, medical suite, educational suite, agriculture and rainwater harvesting. LEED®
application principles and urban planning will be incorporated to utilize readily available
building materials and techniques whilst reducing waste.
6
Objectives of the Study
• Review aspects to improve housing design and neighborhood planning in the following:
- USGBC LEED Homes
- USGBC LEED Neighborhoods
- Look into preliminary aspects of NAHB Green Homes
- A Pattern Language. Alexander et al (1977)
• Create a model housing unit within a model village type neighborhood.
• Determine the aspects needed to improve the quality of life in the satellite towns of the FCT.
• Incorporate new innovations into the proposed housing and neighborhood.
• Create a management structure for the model neighborhood that will include income
generation, maintenance, security and regulation policies.
7
Significance of the Study
• This study aims to improve the plight of the income earners in the satellite towns of the FCT.
Seek out new ways to improve their living conditions; as this will have an overall impact on the
lives of the people.
• The information provided would be useful to the government, international agencies and
nongovernmental organizations. This can lead to major changes made by the government
concerning the issue of housing policies for low income earners.
• This could be used as an educational case study that provides information that can be used for
further research.
• This is a timely study as the current world focus is on green and also LEED® innovations to
conserve energy and reduce the waste of resources (materials, labor, human resources, and
energy).
8
Assumptions and Limitations
• This project proposal is limited to the FCT (Federal Capital City) of Abuja – Nigeria. No
further projections will be made due to resource limitation.
• It is limited to the Nigerian environment.
• It is limited to the building materials and construction labor readily available in this region.
• Residents will pay for housing through employment opportunities afforded in the satellite
communities.
• The Nigerian Government may need to fund initial neighborhood infrastructure proposed.
9
Definition of Terms
Energy Efficiency – This means the capacity for vigorous activity and the ability to accomplish
a job with a minimum expenditure of time, resources and effort.
Green Building Certification Institute (GBCI) – is an organization founded in the United
States that handles the certification process for projects and administers credentialing of LEED®
Accredited professionals, basically a subsidiary of USGBC.
Pattern Language – A book by Alexander et al. It gives detailed patterns for towns,
neighborhoods’, houses, gardens and rooms. The elements of this language are entities called
patterns. Each pattern describes a problem which occurs over and over again in our environment,
and then describes the core of the solution to that problem. The pattern language book by
Alexander et al contains 253 patterns which can be used in planning and organizing spaces
especially land mass.
Rainwater harvesting – This is the accumulating and storing of rainwater for reuse, before it
reaches the aquifer. It has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water for
irrigation, as well as other typical uses given to water. Rainwater collected from the roofs of
houses, tents and other buildings can make an important contribution to the availability of
drinking water. Rainwater Harvesting, ( www.wikipedia.com).
Slum – This is a thickly populated, run-down, squalid part of a city, inhabited by poor people.
(Slum, www.Dictionary.com)
Solar Panels - A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged,
interconnected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be
10
used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in
commercial and residential applications. (Solar Panels, www.wikipedia.com, 2010).
Sustainable architecture - This is a general term that describes environmentally conscious
design techniques in the field of architecture. Sustainable architecture is framed by the larger
discussion of sustainability and the pressing economic and political issues of our world. In the
broad context, sustainable architecture seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of
buildings by enhancing efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and
development space. Most simply, the idea of sustainability, or ecological design, is to ensure that
our actions and decisions today do not inhibit the opportunities of future generations.
USBGC LEED® - Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) is an
internationally recognized green building certification system, providing third-party verification
that a building or community was designed and built using strategies intended to improve
performance in metrics such as energy savings, water efficiency, CO2 emissions reduction,
improved indoor environmental quality, and stewardship of resources and sensitivity to their
impacts. (LEED®, www.wikipedia.com 2010)
United States Green Building Council (USGBC) – is an organization that developed the
LEED® rating system and is one of the most internationally recognized and accepted green
building benchmarks. The rating system provides a framework to design, build and operate green
buildings and presents metrics to measure their performance.
11
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Historical Context
One of the most important survival instincts of the early man throughout evolution was
the need for shelter from the varied climatic conditions; whether it was periods of intense cold or
heat that existed at the time. Survival was dependent on the ability to protect oneself from the
elements. Caves or shelters, found in rocks and mountains, were used before the advent of make
shift tents up until the coming of enclosed building spaces. Shelters were considered ‘green’
even before the term was coined because these structures were adapted by the people to suite the
natural surroundings in which they found themselves. Such examples can be seen in the igloo of
the Eskimo tribes of the circumpolar region, thatch, stick / wood, mud, mud-brick, and rammed
earth of the African regions, and earth sheltering structures of the temperate regions.
Relevant Theory
With the advent of industrialization, a lot of new innovations in building materials and
construction techniques have altered the fundamental way in which buildings are designed. The
focus of a residential structure in many developed nations has shifted from a source of shelter to
tastes that is more refined, aesthetically pleasing and in many cases with higher energy and
natural resources consumption than ever before. In developing countries, the scenario is quite
different with such economic issues as inadequate social amenities being a major problem for the
government coupled with the high growth rate of the populace. The outskirts of the Federal
Capital Territory (FCT) house a large number of temporary settlements with a stunning daily
influx of people. This population explosion is due to the migration of people from other states
12
into the FCT in search of jobs and a better life. These settlements consist of poorly built shanties
and houses without the following: proper sewage management, constant electricity, waste
disposal and running water. These lacking amenities result in deplorable conditions that exist in
these slums. A common Nigerian term used to describe this situation is called ‘Face me I Face
You’. This is a situation used to describe crowded living where privacy is virtually nonexistent.
The tenants share cooking spaces, restrooms and makeshift bathrooms. According to Chermayeff
& Alexander (1963), ‘Privacy is most urgently needed and most critical in the place where
people live, be it house, apartment or any other dwellings’. A majority of these houses are
illegally constructed and are not in accordance with the state master plan. They are constructed
en masse by illegal landlords wanting to make fast money by taking advantage of people
desperate for a place to stay because they cannot afford to live in the city due to the high cost of
houses. These satellite towns have been known to be breeding grounds for crime, prostitution
and other social vices.
Housing System in Nigeria
The housing system of Nigeria consist of the civil service (Federal Government) owning
the largest portion of housing in the country. These houses are reserved for government workers.
According to a study carried out in 2004 by the Public Administration, the federal government
owns 24 percent of the housing sector. Country Profile (2004). Private companies and
corporations own the second largest portion of housing followed by individual ownership of
properties. According to Olotuah (2000), ‘the government’s attempts at ameliorating the housing
difficulties faced by the populace have mainly been through the provision of low – cost houses
directly constructed by it. In the Nigerian construction industry, the cost of building materials in
the total expenditure on housing constitutes about 60 percent. By incorporating locally available
13
materials, the cost of construction is significantly reduced. Olotuah (2000). Moreover, these
materials are better suited to the tropics and are environmentally friendly.
Monetization in the Nigerian Civil Service
The term ‘monetization’ in Nigeria came into being during the regime of Olusegun
Obasanjo (1999 - 2008) in the Nigerian Civil Service. Monetization can be described as a
monetary policy designed, which means benefits being enjoyed by public servants would be paid
enbloc (monetized). However, the items listed for monetization include residential
accommodation, official vehicles and other allowances. (Mobolaji, 2003). This operation
allowed government workers to purchase the houses allocated to them by the government. The
occupants had the option of purchasing the house or selling it. The federal government, in an
attempt to reduce the burden of providing basic amenities for the public officers and also to curb
the abuse and misuse of public facilities, decided to incorporate the monetization policy.
According to Ramachandran, (2003), ‘monetization is considered one of the best policy options
to attain fiscal prudence consistent with growth and stability’. The problem with monetization in
the Nigerian Government is thus; once these properties have been sold off, there are no facilities
available for new and incoming government staff and officials. These people are forced to rent
houses and are given a housing or vehicle allowance that is too low to cover the actual cost. With
the swearing in of top government officials, ministers and political appointees, some properties
were repossessed by the government from retired service members because there was no suitable
accommodation to house these individuals. Big corporations in the private sector have some
housing facilities available for workers but only a small percentage. The rest of the populace is
left to fend for itself, hence the increase in slums all over the satellite towns.
14
Demolition in the FCT – Abuja
A demolition operation began in the FCT between 2003 and 2007 under the Minister of
the Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA) Malam Nasir Ahmed el – Rufai, who
launched and implemented a policy of mass forced evictions and demolition of illegal structures
in an attempt to restore what he termed as ‘restoration of the original Abuja master plan’. An
estimated 800,000 people lost their homes, worship places, school and businesses during the
exercise with spiraling effects seen in family displacement, health, and income. Some of these
evictions were accompanied by massive human rights violations. The result of this operation has
not stopped the slums from springing up. It has only resulted in resettlement of the displaced
people in new areas, thereby creating a temporary solution instead of tackling the root cause of
the problem which is inadequate housing. (Ohaeri, 2010).
Existing Housing Conditions and Energy Concerns
The existing housing situation in low income areas of the FCT is not a favorable one;
with most units lack the following: adequate ventilation, limited power supply, sanitary, water
supply and privacy, which are the basic social amenities of life. This situation is not a sustainable
one and can only be improved if changes are made as soon as possible. The energy crisis of the
1970s, which occurred in the United States, created the push for energy efficient and green
buildings. Also the concern about environmental problems due to depletion of natural resources
brought to light the importance of energy conservation. Incentives were made available for
research into solar technologies and alternate forms of energy that were more ecologically
15
friendly. Over the years, there has been a huge increase in consumption of energy in the building
sector.
It is stated that buildings in the United States account for 48 percent of the total energy
consumption Yellamraju, LEED®-Construction (p.4). With the rising rate of the energy
consumption in buildings and how they are contributing in tremendous amounts to the global
climate change has now been realized, hence the shift to operate and design buildings in ways
that are more energy efficient and environmentally friendly.
Financial Concerns of Low Income Earners
Numerous studies have been carried out on formal and informal traditional sources of
housing finance in developed and developing countries (Ferguson and Smets 2009; Okoroafor,
2007; Stein and Castillo, 2005). According to Wapwera (2011), the issue of finance is a huge
problem for people living in abject poverty, as some earn very little and others have no income at
all. Prior to the colonial period, there existed a number of methods of housing finance that were
adopted in different parts of Nigeria. Access to sources of funds through informal means was
usually by the following:
Esusu / Asusu and Ajo - This is a term that is used to describe individual or group savings and
these names are indigenous to the three main native Nigerian languages; Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo
Age Grade Association - This is an association of people in the same age bracket or age groups
coming together and making contributions of funds into the same account for different purposes.
This helps individual members get access to funds that they would not otherwise have been able
to provide on their own.
16
Village Development Schemes - These are small scale loan programs that involve family
members, relatives, and neighbors all from the same village gathering funds to assist towards
housing provisions, building of churches, schools, town halls et cetera.
Town Unions - This comprised of funds contributed by people living outside their place of birth,
abroad or in foreign countries. The funds contributed are used for the development of their rural
or town community. The natives can borrow from these funds with a very low and affordable
interest rate.
Aaro, Owe or Nwuk - These are terms used to describe community self- help processes where
contributions are made in the form of providing labor on a member’s or native’s site until the
circle is completed. This involves rotational activities or menial jobs being done by people in
their group.
Other informal avenues of finances are through loans from traditional money lenders as
the name implies, they consist of social club contributors or barter arrangements. All the above
mentioned means of obtaining finances are tedious and unending and are a common practice in
poverty stricken areas which are characterized by poor and unhealthy living conditions. Those
who reside in low-income settlements have better access to credit, which can be from colleagues,
co-operatives or banks. But the sad reality of this situation is that only a small percentage of
these people have benefited from the opportunity of borrowing to finance different stages of their
housing projects. Smets (2004).
Modern methods of housing finance in Nigeria today include Federal Mortgage Bank of
Nigeria, universal banks, specialized development banks, insurance companies, pension funds,
17
corporate bodies; developers/contractors financed national housing funds etc. These institutions
come with a lot of logistics that are not clear enough and not easily attainable. Wapwera (2011).
What is LEED®?
According to the Yellamraju, the concept of USGBC (LEED®) Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design was developed in 1998 as a rating system to catalyze the green building
movement in the United States. According to the USGBC (United States Green Building
Council), LEED® promotes development and sustainable practices through a suite of LEED
rating systems. These systems recognize projects that implement strategies for better
environmental and health performances. The aim of the LEED® system is to revive the old
traditional architecture that is considered passively green in design and combine them with
modern day solutions that are more energy efficient. The advent of HVAC systems in the 20th
century was an era which revolutionized the construction industry forever. The emergence of
several green rating systems were among the significant factors that brought change including
B.R.E.E.A.M. (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method), Green
Star etc.
The Principles of LEED® application are not prevalent in the Nigerian building industry
at the time of this project, making this project timely. The decision to incorporate LEED®
principles into this project will not only help in energy conservation and management, CO2
emission reduction, healthy environment which will increase human productivity, but will also
reduce housing issues while generating income for the government. This project will incorporate
cottage industries (small businesses), thus generating income for the people at close proximity to
their dwellings. The review of various prerequisites and credits of USGBC LEED® Homes and
18
LEED New Neighborhood categories that can be applied to the project during the reviews of the
stages of traditional construction methods. Key LEED criteria were incorporated in this project.
LEED® PHASES
Criteria from the following LEED® Phases were considered to develop applicable
LEED® categories, prerequisites and credits for selection during this research project. The
information given in this section was obtained from ‘LEED®-New Construction Project
Management from Yellamraju (2010) and includes a breakdown of building processes right from
its conception.
Phase 1: Project Definition and Goal Setting
This phase includes data collection and also conducting preliminary analyses that will pave
the way for achieving the desired LEED® rating and certification. It begins in the pre-schematic
design phase and should be completed before moving to the next phase. This phase can be
further broken down into stages that can be further broken down into activities or steps.
i. Collect and compile preliminary data.
ii. Prepare a preliminary LEED® assessment.
iii. Register the project on LEED® online.
iv. Organize a LEED® Vision Workshop.
v. Prepare a LEED® Project Workbook.
19
Phase II: Design Phase Integration
This stage involves incorporating principles of green building products and the strategies
that will be integrated into the design. Also the LEED® credit system will be used as a guide to
incorporate this framework into the building process. The activities that relate to the design
phase of the project will be considered. They include schematic design, design development and,
construction documents. This can be further broken down into stages and then into steps.
Schematic Design (SD) LEED® Phase
i. Perform a credit analysis.
ii. Research and identify green products.
iii. Integrate green requirements into design.
iv. Review schematic design drawings.
Design Development (DD) LEED® Phase
i. Update credit analyses and drawings.
ii. Prepare for construction phase.
iii. Develop building management policies.
iv. Review design development drawings.
20
Construction Documents (CD) LEED® Phase
i. Prepare documentation for design credits.
ii. Submit to GBCI for design review.
Phase III: Construction Phase Implementation
This phase involves the implementation of green construction practices and procedures
on the construction site using the LEED® project management process. Phase activities such as
the purchase of green materials, integrating construction measures, commissioning systems and
keeping track of information are necessities to achieving the goals set in this phase.
This stage consists of five steps listed as follows:
i. Organize a pre-construction LEED® Kick-off meeting.
ii. Review progress of credit implementation.
iii. Prepare documentation for GBCI submission.
iv. Review final documents for GBCI submission.
v. Submit to GBCI for construction review.
21
Green Buildings
The concept of LEED® is interwoven with green building systems. Hence, incorporating
USGBC LEED® principles into a structure must also contain green building principles because it
is one of the fundamentals upon which the concept of USGBC LEED® is based.
The term green buildings according to Wikipedia (2010), is also known as green
construction or sustainable buildings. It refers to a structure using processes that are
environmentally responsible and resource efficient throughout a buildings life cycle. The life
cycle encompasses siting to design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation and
demolition. Green buildings are designed in such a manner so as to reduce the overall impact of
the built environment on the health of the occupants and the natural environment.
According to Green Building, (2012), this can be achieved by:
i. Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation,
ii. Use of energy, water and other resources in an efficient manner, and
iii. Protecting the health of the occupants and improving employee productivity.
(Green Buildings, 2012).
22
Pattern Language
The pattern language is a concept of organizing spaces to fit the needs and functions of a
geographical area. It gives detailed patterns for towns, neighborhoods’, houses, gardens and
rooms. The elements of this language are entities called patterns. Each pattern describes a
problem which occurs over and over again in our built environment, and then describes the core
of the solution to that problem. The pattern language book by Alexander et al (1977) contains
253 patterns which can be used in planning and organizing spaces especially land mass in this
case. ‘I conceive that land belongs for use to a vast family of which many are dead, few are
living and countless members are still unborn’ – A Nigerian tribesman (Alexander et al , p37).
Two different necessities govern the distribution of population in a region. People are
drawn to cities by the growth of civilization, jobs, education, economic growth and information.
In order to establish a reasonable distribution of population within a region, two separate features
of the distribution must be fixed: its statistical character and its spatial character. This will ensure
equal distribution and avoid high concentration areas. According to Alexander et al, (pg. 43-44),
one of the three alternative ways in which people may be distributed throughout a city are the
heterogeneous city, the city of ghettos and the mosaic of subcultures. The city of ghettos is the
main emphasis of this research project. In a city made up of ghettos, people are usually forced to
live isolated from the rest of society, unable to evolve their way of life, and often intolerant of
ways of life different from their own. This is very often the case found in the new and emerging
ghettos around the FCT – Abuja.
23
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Restatement of the Problem
Restatement of the Objectives
• Review aspects to improve housing design and neighborhood planning in the following:
- USGBC LEED Homes
- USGBC LEED Neighborhoods
- Look into preliminary aspects of NAHB Green Homes
- A Pattern Language. Alexander et al (1977)
• Create a model housing unit within a model village type neighborhood.
• Determine the aspects needed to improve the quality of life in the satellite towns of the FCT.
24
• Incorporate new innovations into the proposed housing and neighborhood.
• Create a management structure for the model neighborhood that will include income
generation, maintenance, security and regulation policies.
• Identify patterns that can be incorporated into the planning of the proposed site.
Research Procedure
• Identify green building principles.
• Identify applicable prerequisites and credits.
• Develop a generic schematic neighborhood site plan within the LEED® Homes and LEED®
Neighborhood rating systems based on criteria identified in LEED® neighborhoods and the book
A Pattern language by Alexander et al (1977).
• Develop generic residential building plans showing floor plan layouts.
• Identify green components that can be incorporated into the project.
25
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
Restatement of the Problem
LEED Neighborhood Reference Guide (USGBC LEED – ND®)
According to the Green Neighborhood Development (2009), the U.S. Green Building
Council, the Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU), and the Natural Resources Defense
Council (NRDC) had come together to develop a rating system for neighborhood planning and
development based on the combination of principles that entail smart growth, green
infrastructure, new urbanism and building. LEED® for Neighborhood Development emphasizes
the selection of the site, design and construction elements that bring infrastructure and buildings
into a neighborhood, and relate the neighborhood to its landscape as well as its local and regional
context. LEED for Neighborhood Development creates a label as well as guidelines for both
26
decision making and development, to provide an incentive for better location, design and the
construction of new residential, commercial and mixed-use developments.
LEED for Neighborhood Development (LEED-ND) has three environmental categories:
Smart Location and Linkage, Neighborhood Pattern and Design, and Green Infrastructure and
Buildings. An additional category called ‘Innovation and Design Process’ addresses sustainable
design and construction issues and measures not covered under the three categories. For a
LEED-ND project, there is no minimum or maximum size but suggest a minimum size should be
at least two habitable buildings and the maximum area that can be considered a neighborhood is
320 acres or half a square mile. A mix of uses is often integral to the vitality of the
neighborhood. This can include a combination of residential, commercial including a variety of
retail establishments, services, community facilities, and other diverse uses. The sustainable
benefits of a neighborhood increase when it offers proximity to transit and when its residents and
workers can safely travel by foot or bicycle to jobs, amenities, and services. This creates a
neighborhood with a high quality of life and healthy inhabitants. With green building principles
incorporated, a reduction in energy use, water use and the incorporation of green infrastructure
such as landscaping can protect natural resources. The aim would be to select items that are best
suited and can be incorporated into the proposed project design.
27
Smart Location and Linkage
Smart location and linkages focuses on selection of sites that minimize the adverse
environmental effects of new development and avoid contributing to sprawl and its
consequences. Sprawl can consume forest land, destroy wildlife habitat, degrade water quality
through the destruction of wetlands and increased storm water runoff, pollute air and emit
greenhouse gases and often displace agriculture from prime farm land to locations where food
production require more energy and chemical input.
The list for credit points available is as follows:
SLL Credit 1 Preferred Locations
SLL Credit 3 Location with Reduced Automobile Dependence
SLL Credit 8 Restoration of Habitat or Wetlands and Water Bodies
Neighborhood Pattern and Design
This emphasizes the creation of compact, walkable, vibrant, mixed-use neighborhoods
with good connections to nearby communities. Communities with diverse housing types that
accommodate a range of incomes, ages, and physical abilities that permit residents to live closer
to their work places, help the community retain residents, and allow families to remain in the
neighborhood as their circumstances change over time.
28
The list of credit points available is as follows:
NPD Credit 1 Walkable Streets (Points 1-12)
To promote transportation efficiency, including reduced vehicle miles traveled. To
promote walking by providing safe, appealing and comfortable street environments that supports
public health by reducing pedestrian injuries and encouraging daily physical activity.
NPD Credit 3 Mixed-Use Neighborhood Centers (Points 1-4)
To cluster diverse land uses in accessible neighborhood and regional centers to encourage
daily walking, biking and transit use, reduce vehicle miles traveled and automobile dependence
and support car-free living.
NPD Credit 4 Mixed-Income Diverse Communities (Points 1-7)
To promote socially equitable and engaging communities by enabling residents from a
wide range of economic levels, household sizes, and age groups to live in a community.
NPD Credit 11 Visitability and Universal Design (Points 1)
To enable the widest spectrum of people, regardless of age or ability, to more easily
participate in community life by increasing the proportion of areas usable by people of diverse
abilities.
29
NPD Credit 13 Local Food Production
To promote community-based food production, improve nutrition through increased
access to fresh produce, support preservation of small farms producing a wide variety of crops,
reduce the negative environmental effects of large scaled industrialized agriculture, and support
local economic development that increases the economic value and production of farmlands and
community gardens.
NPD Credit 14 Tree-Lined and Shaded Streets (Points 1-2)
These were made to encourage walking, bicycling, and transit use, and discourage
excessive motoring speeds. To reduce urban heat island effects, improve air quality, increase
evapotranspiration, and reduce cooling loads in buildings.
Green Infrastructure and Buildings
This focuses on measures that can reduce the environmental consequences of the
construction and operation of buildings and infrastructure. According to the LEED
Neighborhood, It is a known fact that globally, building construction uses 40 percent of raw
materials, (LEED-ND). Sustainable building technologies reduce waste and use energy, water,
and materials more efficiently than conventional building practices.
30
GIB Credit 1 Certified Green Buildings
To encourage the design, construction, and retrofit of buildings that utilizes green
building practices.
GIB Credit 2 Building Energy Efficiency (Points- 2)
To encourage the design and construction of energy-efficient buildings that reduces air,
water, and land pollution and adverse environmental effects from energy production and
consumption.
GIB Credit 3 Building Water Efficiency (Points – 1)
To reduce effects on natural water resources and reduce burdens on community water
supply and waste water systems.
GIB Credit 4 Water-Efficient Landscaping (Points – 1)
To limit or eliminate the use of potable water and other natural surface or subsurface
water resources on project sites, for landscape irrigation.
GIB Credit 5 Existing Building Reuse (Points – 1)
To extend the life cycle of existing building stock to conserve resources, reduce waste,
and reduce adverse environmental effects of new buildings related to material manufacturing and
transport.
GIB Credit 6 Historic Resource Preservation and Adaptive Use (Points – 1)
31
To encourage the preservation and adaptive use of historic buildings and cultural
landscapes that represent significant embodied energy and cultural value, in a manner that
preserves historic materials and character-defining features.
GIB Credit 8 Storm water Management (Points 1 – 4)
To reduce pollution and hydrologic instability from storm water, reduce flooding,
promote aquifer recharge, and improve water quality by emulating natural hydrologic conditions.
GIB Credit 9 Heat Island Reduction (Points – 1)
To reduce heat islands to minimize effects on the microclimate and human and wildlife
habitat.
GIB Credit 10 Solar Orientation (Points – 1)
To encourage energy efficiency by creating optimum conditions for the use of passive
and active solar strategies.
GIB Credit 11 On-Site Renewable Energy Sources (Points 1 – 3)
To encourage on-site renewable energy production to reduce the adverse environmental
and economic effects associated with fossil fuel energy production and use.
GIB Credit 12 Districts Heating and Cooling (Points – 2)
To encourage the development of energy-efficient neighborhoods by employing district
heating and cooling strategies that reduces energy use and adverse energy-related environmental
effects.
32
GIB Credit 13 Infrastructure Energy Efficiency (Points – 1)
To reduce adverse environmental effects from energy used for operating public
infrastructure.
GIB Credit 14 Wastewater Management (Points 1-2)
To reduce pollution from wastewater and encourage water reuse.
GIB Credit 15 Recycled Content in Infrastructure (Points -1)
To use recycled and reclaimed materials to reduce the adverse environmental effects of
extracting and processing virgin materials.
Regional Priority Credits
The US Green Building regional councils and chapters in consultation with CNU
chapters and membership, developed regional priority in 2009. This new credit allows projects to
earn one point each for up to four of six regional priorities it fulfills. RPC’s are existing LEED®
credits that USGBC regional councils and chapters have designated as being particularly
important for their areas. If an RPC is earned, then a bonus point is awarded to the projects total
points. A specific location – referenced by zip code – has six RPC’s per rating system.
RP Credit 1 Regional Priority (Points 1-4)
To encourage strategies that address geographically specific environmental, social equity,
and public health priorities.
33
LEED® Homes Reference Guide
The LEED® Green Building Rating System was released in March 2000, after years of
modification. It addresses the different project development and delivery processes that exist in
the U.S. building design and construction market. It evaluates environmental performance from a
whole building perspective over a buildings life cycle, providing a definitive measure for what
constitutes a green building. The development of the LEED® Green Building System was
initiated by USGBC members, and involves all segments of the building industry. LEED® has
five environmental categories: Sustainable Sites, Water Efficiency, Energy and Atmosphere, and
Indoor Environmental Quality. The sixth category being Innovation in Design, addresses
sustainable building expertise as well as design measures not covered under the five categories.
LEED® Homes addressed several types of new residential construction. Some of them are
single-family homes, low-rise multifamily, mid-rise multifamily, production homes, affordable
homes, manufactured and modular housing, and existing homes.
Credit Categories
LEED® Homes certification is based on 18 prerequisites and 67 credits. The prerequisites
are basic performance standards and are mandated for every project to receive category credits
even though points are not awarded for meeting them. In total, 136 credit points are available and
are classified in the following eight credit categories:
1. Innovation in Design (ID) Process.
This refers to special design methods, and unique regional credits. The ID Process
34
encourages project planning and design to improve the integration and coordination of green
elements in a home. These elements are shown to produce quantifiable environmental and human
health benefits while earning credit points. With the constant evolution of sustainable design
strategies and measures, new technologies are continuously being introduced into the
marketplace. An aspect of home design that is overlooked often is the long-term durability of
technologies utilized in homes. Failures in durability are a significant cost and cause of stress for
both builders and homeowners as well.
2. Location & Linkages (LL).
This category is for the placement of homes in a socially and environmentally responsible
way in relation to the larger community. Home building projects have substantial site-related
environmental effects. The credits reward builders for selecting sites that have better sustainable
land-use patterns and offer environmental advantages over other conventional developments.
Areas considered well sited should promote sustainable transportation options such as walking,
cycling and mass transit thereby reducing dependence on personal automobiles. This category
constitutes integrated project planning, durability management process, and innovative or
regional design.
3. Sustainable Sites (SS).
This is the use of the entire property to minimize the project’s impact on the site. The design
of the site and its natural elements can have a significant environmental impact. The credits
obtained from this category rewards projects for designing the site to minimize adverse impacts.
The protection of native plants and animal species is important. The aesthetic and functional
attributes of the site should be considered but also the long-term management needs. This
35
category constitutes the consideration of landscaping, local heat island effect, surface water
management, nontoxic pest control and compact development.
4. Water Efficiency (WE).
This category focuses on water conservation practices, both indoor and outdoor. As
communities grow, increased demand for water leads to additional maintenance and higher costs
for municipal supply and treatment facilities. New homes that utilize water efficiently have lower
water use fees and reduced sewage volumes. Water conservation strategies such as rainwater
harvesting and greywater plumbing systems often involve more substantial investment than
others. Water efficiency constitutes water reuse, irrigation systems and indoor water use.
5. Energy & Atmosphere (EA).
This is Energy efficiency, particularly in the design of the building envelope, and heating and
cooling system. As this project will be designed with special consideration for its location in the
tropics, the focus will be on cooling. Conventional fossil-based generation of electricity releases
carbon dioxide (CO2), which contributes to global climate change. The use of coal, natural gas,
nuclear fission and hydroelectric generators all have adverse health and environmental impacts.
With scientist prediction that greenhouse gases, if left unchecked, will raise global temperatures
by 2.5oF to 10oF during the 21st century. This process must be slowed down, stopped and
reversed. The residential building sector is not exempt from contributing to the global carbon
emissions. Building green homes is one of the ways to reduce energy consumption and CO2
emissions. This category constitutes insulation, air infiltration, windows, heating & cooling
distribution systems, space heating and cooling equipment, water heating, lighting, appliances,
and renewable energy.
36
6. Materials & Resources (MR).
This is the efficient utilization of materials, selection of environmentally preferable materials,
and minimization of waste during construction. The choice of building materials is very
important for sustainable home building because of the extraction, processing and transportation
materials require. Materials can be reused, recycled or locally sourced. This section constitutes
material efficient construction, environmentally preferable products and waste management.
7. Indoor Environmental Quality (EQ).
This category is to improve indoor air quality by reducing the creation of and exposure to
pollutants. In the United States, 90% of a person’s time is spent indoors where pollution may run
two to five times (sometimes 100 times more) more than the outdoors. According to the World
Health Organization guidelines for Europe, most of an individual’s exposures to many pollutants
come through inhalation of indoor air. Also hazardous household pollutants include such things
as carbon monoxide, radon, formaldehyde, mold, dirt and dust, pet dander, and residue from
candles and tobacco smoke. Many homeowners store various chemicals in their homes including
pesticides, fertilizers, solvents, greasers, thinners and oil-based paints. Preventing indoor air
quality problems is less expensive that solving them. There are three strategies involved; source
removal, source control and dilution.
Source removal and control is the most practical way to ensure harmful chemical
compounds are not brought into the home. Also, scheduling deliveries and sequencing
construction activities can reduce exposure of materials to moisture (causing mold) and
absorption of off-gassed contaminants. Dilution involves using fresh outside air to ventilate a
37
home, exhaust pollutants to the outdoors, and control of indoor moisture. This category consist
of two sections: EQ1 (EPA indoor airPLUS, enhanced outdoor ventilation, enhanced local
exhaust, third-party testing, better/best air filters, and indoor contaminant control) and EQ2
(combustion venting, moisture control, outdoor air ventilation, local exhaust, distribution
systems, air filtering, contaminant control, radon protection, and garage pollutant protection).
8. Awareness & Education (AE).
This is the awareness creation and education of homeowners, tenants, or
multifamily building managers about the operations and maintenance of the green features of a
LEED® Home throughout its life cycle. This section consists of two categories, the education of
the homeowner or tenant and the education of the building manager.
Regional Materials and Resources that can be easily sought in the FCT
This section presents research into materials common to the proposed project region. The
aim was to determine materials that can be used for construction and that will be cost effective in
terms of availability and transportation. According to the natural resources and development
website of Nigeria, the following naturally occurring resources below were found in the FCT.
Mineral Resources:
There are various types of mineral resources in the FCT which are of high quality and
have potentials for both domestic and export markets. Some of the minerals and their various
applications are as follows.
38
Marble:
According the natural resource and development website, marble is perhaps the mineral with the
greatest known quantity in the FCT. Marble deposits around the village of Burum alone are more
than seven million tons. Indeed, the quality of the Burum marble is excellent. There are other
deposits of marble elsewhere in the FCT, especially around the villages of Kusaki, Kenada, Taka
Lafia and Ele.
It is estimated that the marble formations run along a narrow band for some seven km in
a northeast direction from Ele. Deposits of marble may be found around the village of Kusaki.
These marble deposits are truly important and will in the future form an important aspect of the
economic development of the Territory.
Figure 2. Showing different types of marble
39
Tin Deposits:
Tin is probably known in association with Jos (one of the 36 states in Nigeria), but some
deposits in the FCT are found mainly around the village of Kusaki, northeast of the Kuje district,
and also northeast of FCT. Tin veins in this area may be up to three km in length and some 30m
in width. The large veins are feldspathic, containing microsline, albite, and quartz. A little more
work still needs to be done there to establish whether mining will be commercially viable.
Figure 3. Showing Tin in its raw form.
40
Stones:
These are mainly granitic rocks found all over the territory, that may be utilized as
industrial materials mica and talc schist’s or as rocks that will be of possible use as building
materials. For many of the minerals, no detailed studies have as yet been carried out to determine
the extent of availability and whether or not they are worth exploiting.
Figure 4. Showing stone manually excavated from rocks.
41
Wolframite and Tantalite:
Deposits of wolframite and tantalite exist in the FCT along the road between Suleja and
Burum. Wolframite is a compound of iron and manganese. Tantalite is a black mineral, also a
variety of iron. The extent of the deposits of these two minerals are however unknown and more
work is required to establish the quantities and qualities available.
Figure 5. Showing Wolframite and Tantalite
Lead:
Found mainly in Babban Tasha village of the territory.
42
Clay:
Red clays suitable for house construction and brick making are found in places like lzom,
Dangara, Shenagu, Gwagwa, Karu and Kobo. Ceramic clays are also present in places like
Rubochi, Yaba and Bwari.
Figure 6. Showing Red Clay deposits
Mica:
White mica, suitable for use as raw material in production of rubber, roofing materials, paint and
paper production, exists around the villages of Kabin Mangoro and Kusaki (Natural Resources
and Development, (2003). Ample amounts of laterite are available for backfilling purposes, and
sharp sand sought from the bed of rivers, tributaries and swampy areas are easily available for
construction.
43
Requirements needed to improve the quality of life in low income areas of the FCT
The needs of residents of low income areas in the FCT require the basic amenities of life
such as potable drinking water, sanitary facilities, constant electricity supply, waste management,
access to affordable medical facilities and decent housing in a good neighborhood. These needs
are seen as primary, but in many low-income residential settlements of developing countries
these necessities are non-existent.
New innovations that can be incorporated into the proposed housing design
The energy crisis experienced the world over, has led to research into new innovations in
energy conservation, waste reduction, and ecological friendly energy alternatives. The proposed
model will incorporate innovations such as; photovoltaic solar panels, orientation and
climatology, rainwater harvesting, waste management and recycling along with principles of
LEED® and pattern language that can be applied in this environment.
Management structure for the project that would include income generation, maintenance,
security, and regulation policies.
This section considered ways in which this project can be maintained throughout its life
cycle. One of the major problems with new construction in Nigeria is the lack of maintenance
policies and that they are not continuously adhered to. The result is a lot of abandoned
dilapidated facilities that are converted into shelters for social vices. The idea of having a facility
management plan that would include residential units, cottage industries, and agriculture,
maintenance, water and waste treatment plants along with income generated from these sectors.
44
A facility management is so broad that it will be analyzed on a primary level with minimal
details; and would be open for future research and in-depth analysis.
This project will be owned in a joint partnership between the government and a
conglomeration of private organizations such as Habitat for Humanity, Facility Managers or
other non-governmental organizations. This will ensure accountability and effective
management. The reason for this is because the government is capable of providing a bulk of the
funds required to set up this project, but a private company or organization would be better at
managing the facility. This is due to such aspects as misappropriation of funds and constant
maintenance requirements.
Agriculture
Waste
Maintenance
Management
Facility
Management
Water Residential
Treatment Units
Figure 7. Proposed Facility Management Structure
45
Water Treatment
Access to clean drinking water is very important to the residents of satellite towns in the
FCT. The major fact that these towns are not all planned and thereby not connected to the city
water supply makes access to clean water difficult. A lot of people are forced to buy water from
local vendors peddling water jerry cans in carts. This water is unsanitary because it is often
fetched from drains, streams and tributaries. The methods of collection as seen during a visit in a
neighboring town, showed the vendors pouring water fetched from a drain into a jerry can with a
cotton cloth serving as a filter for dirt and particles. This water is purchased and used for
household activities such as cooking, washing and drinking (especially in poorer households).
The presence of treated water will reduce illnesses especially in children such as typhoid fever,
cholera, diarrhea, and worm infections. Having clean available water will reduce the cost of
medical treatments due to sickness.
Waste Management
A vital signature of slums and poorer parts of the city are the stench from poor waste
management and collection services. Visits to the slums of Bosso LGA of Minna – Niger state
showed the houses built with no form of order and the waste produced from the toilets and
makeshift bathrooms, in these poorly constructed houses, was washed directly into the streets.
The house had grooves manually dug outside these conveniences to serve as a means of
transporting (gravity flow) these waste away out in the open. Also noted were the children
playing in the streets and often times picking up their balls from within the raw sewage. These
are breeding grounds for disease causing vectors and show the need for clean and sanitary
conditions is so important. Chris Zurbrugg, (1998) SANDEC / EAWAG reports that ‘third
46
world research reveals that nearly two-thirds of solid waste there is not collected, and is never
officially acknowledged. Candy wrappers, cigarette filters, plastic bags, and other items are
immediately discarded after use. They collect in clumps and move through the environment in
streams and rivers, eventually entering bays and seas. None enters any recycling system’. (p.2).
The need to have an effective recycling system that can manage the waste produced by the
facility and also the conversion of household compost waste for the farms would be beneficial
and to some extent reduce some fertilization cost.
Agriculture
The choice to incorporate an agriculture unit, that will involve the cultivation of land, is
based on the need for any settlement of people to be able to feed itself to the best of its ability.
This unit will serve as a source of employment for able bodied individuals. Excess proceeds from
the farms will be sold to aid in generating income. Growing food would encourage a healthy
eating way of life. According to the WHO (world health organization), the problems with a lot of
developing countries are high poverty levels with most people living below a dollar a day.
Analytical reports by Shah ( 2010) reflect that at least 80% of the world's population earns less
than $10 a day. Even more disturbing is the statistic that the poorest 40% of the world's
population accounts for five percent of the global income’. If this facility can provide the basic
food staples to be sold at subsidized rates to residents or provide free food to families working on
the farms; hunger will soon be a thing of the past to the people. According to Kwa, (2001),
perhaps the most important dimension of agro-ecological food production is that they can
provide a decent livelihood for small farmers, with fair returns to their labor, if there is a
supportive larger policy environment. These systems have the potential to offer economically
favorable rates of return since the costs of inputs are not exorbitant. The potential benefits to
47
small farmers include increases in food supply, increases in incomes, reduction of poverty,
reduction of malnutrition and general improvement to small farmers’ overall livelihoods.
Maintenance
The issue of facility continuity is very important in developing or third world countries of
the world. It is not enough to construct a facility but most importantly, to have a maintenance or
facility management structure on ground to extend its life. Until recent reforms were made, there
has been a poor maintenance culture in the Nigerian context. The facility maintenance structure
proposed in this project will ensure that the facility is maintained throughout its life cycle.
Residences / Cottage Industries
These are housing units and cottage industries combined together. These units are
composed of cottage industries (shops) on the ground floor and the residences on the second
floor hence, the residents especially the women can have a source of livelihood and can be close
to home at the same time. The cottage industries can include such businesses as tailoring,
bakeries, restaurants, pubs, vegetables, household groceries, hair salons, etc. The residents will
be based according to the size of the families.
This unit consists of standard sized two bedroom apartment consisting of a kitchen,
convenience and living space. Here, each unit will house a small family size between 2 – 4
people. The shops are on the first floor and the residents on the second floor.
48
The Twelve Family Units.
This multi – family unit is designed after the ‘long thin house’ pattern 109 from the
pattern language and is a two story structure that consists of a standard sized one bedroom
apartment with its own convenience, living space and kitchen. This unit can house twelve
families, (six families on each floor).
Selected Patterns from A Pattern Language.
A Pattern Language as written by Alexander et al (1977) serves as a guide that aids in
actual design and construction processes. It is extremely practical and has been compiled from
years of building and planning practices. The elements of this language are entities called
patterns, and each pattern describes a problem which occurs over and over in our built
environment. A pattern then describes the core of the solution in multiple ways. There are 253
patterns and each is ordered, beginning with the largest for regions and towns, then clusters of
buildings, individual buildings, rooms and alcoves, and ending with specific details of
construction. The reason for this sequence is to explain the fact that no one pattern can exist in
isolation but must be linked to other patterns and finally the environment and people living there.
The project recommends the following patterns for adoption:
49
Pattern 15 – Neighborhood Boundary.
The strength of this boundary is essential to a neighborhood. If the boundary is too weak
the neighborhood will not be able to maintain its own identifiable character. An illustration is
given showing the microscopic view of an organic cell wall which in most cases is as large as or
larger than the cell interior (Figure 8). It is not a surface which divides inside from outside but a
coherent entity in its own right, which preserves the functional integrity of the cell and also
provides for a multitude of transactions between the cell and the ambient fluids. Any human
group, with a specific life style, needs a boundary around it to protect its idiosyncrasies from
encroachment and dilution by surrounding ways of life. From observations of neighborhoods that
succeed in being well defined, both physically and in the minds of the townspeople, we have
learned that the single most important feature of a neighborhood’s boundary is ‘restricted access
into the neighborhood’ (p.87). Neighborhoods that are successfully defined have definite and
relatively few paths and roads leading into them. The boundaries not only serve to protect
individual neighborhoods, but simultaneously function to unite them in their larger processes.
Therefore, the formation of boundaries around each neighborhood, to separate it from the
next door neighborhood is encouraged. By closing down streets and limiting access to the
neighborhoods, this pattern is formed. The pattern suggests placement of gateways at those
points where the restricted access paths cross the boundary and making the boundary zones wide
enough to contain meeting places for common functions shared by several neighborhoods.
50
Figure 8 illustrating the neighborhood boundary using a classic microscopic cell wall
(Alexander et al 1977p.87)
Pattern 87 – Individually owned shops.
Where, the first floors will house small cottage industries (shops) and the second floor
will serve as residential apartments. When shops are too large, or controlled by absentee owners,
they become plastic, bland and abstract. This is the reason why cottage industries give a certain
personal quality to the community in which they are located.
Figure 9 Showing Individually Owned Shops
51
Pattern 96 – Number of stories.
According to Alexander et al,(1977), ‘To keep them small in scale, for human reasons
and to keep costs down, they should be as low as possible. But to make the best use of land and
to form a continuous fabric with surrounding buildings, they should be two, three or four stories
instead of one’. It is known that very tall buildings may have a negative psychological effect on
man and that tall buildings are attributed to a lot of suicidal activities, high cost of construction
and increased isolation.
Figure 10 Showing Numbers of Stories
Pattern 106 – Positive Outdoor Space.
There are fundamentally different kinds of outdoor space: negative and positive space.
According to Alexander et al, (1977) ‘An outdoor space is negative when it is shapeless, the
residue left behind when buildings are placed on the land’, or the shape of the building is not
convex because the lines joining its two end points cut across the corner and therefore go outside
the space. A positive outdoor space is one that has a distinct and definite shape that is convex.
52
The positive outdoor space is seen as a figure against the ground of the building while in a
negative outdoor space, the building is seen as a figure and the outdoor space as ground. Figure 9
illustrates positive and negative outdoor spaces.(p.518).
Figure 11. Illustrating positive and negative outdoor spaces as seen in plan view.
Pattern 109 – Long Thin House.
According to Alexander et al, (1977) the shape of a building has a great effect on the
relative degrees of privacy and overcrowding in it. This in turn has a critical effect on people’s
comfort and well-being. The main aim of this pattern is to maximize small spaces by giving them
a feeling of spaciousness. The author states that the ‘feeling of overcrowding is largely created
by the mean point-to-point distances inside a building’. This should be higher in long thin
rectangular buildings; a building that is rectangular in shape increases the privacy of its
occupants and the ability to get within a given area.
53
Figure 12. Showing an example of the long thin house.
NAHB GREEN HOMES
According to research, the name NAHB Green is a term used to describe a United States
based organization that constructs green homes. That is, homes that are energy and resource
efficient, water conserving, design considerations and indoor environmental quality; all of these
taken into consideration. NAHB is another name for the National Green Building Program of the
National Association of Home Builders. The concept behind this organization is to build homes
that are green, each home incorporated with green building principles, each unit constructed with
respect to the geographic location and climate. Also the existing market preferences of the areas
in which they are built are considered.
The NAHB has been a success with a steady growth of certified homes in the United States of
more than 115,000 homes in the local HBA green building programs that took place between
1995-2008. These green building programs have contributed in transforming the industry by
pulling together the builders, elected building officials and environmentalists without mandates
or overbearing regulation. A visit to the NAHB conference of 2012 held in Florida showcased
54
new and innovative materials and finishes in the market, new green concepts and better building
practices.
The NAHB is divided into four different sections:
1. National Green Building Certification to the National Green Building Standard and the NAHB
Model Green Home Building Guidelines.
2. The Certified Green Professional Educational Designation
3. The NAHB National Green Building Conference
4. The NAHB National Green Building Awards. NAHB Green, (2012).
55
DESIGN MODELS FOR THE PROJECT
Residential Unit/Cottage Industry
These units consist of a two storey semi-detached duplex. The ground floor will serve as a
small shop and the first floor will serve as the residence for the family. It comprises of two
bedrooms of standard size, a kitchen, living area and convenience. Each unit has a total floor
area of 63.65m2.
Figure 12. Showing the floor plans of the Cottage Industry / Residential Unit
56
Figure 13. Showing the roof plan of the cottage industry.
57
The 12 Family Units
These units were designed based on the ‘Long thin house’ pattern 109 by Alexander et al.
It consists of a living area, kitchen, bedroom and convenience. The total floor area of each unit is
55.17m2. The first floor houses six small sized families, also the second floor. Hence, the name
‘the twelve family unit’.
Figure 14. Showing the Ground floor plan of the 12FU
58
Figure 15. Showing the first floor plan of the 12FU.
Figure 16. Showing the roof plan of the 12FU.
59
Site Plan for Proposed Residential Facility
This is a depiction of the neighborhood layout and all the units to be incorporated in the
project. There exists land area for agricultural production; as this is a sustainable site, the two
residential units. Also existing are the water treatment unit, the farm house, water treatment
facility and a vocational center.
Figure 17. Showing the site plan for the project.
60
Rainwater Harvesting Collection
The rainwater harvesting and collection layout is shown below. The direction of pipework
and linkage to the water treatment plan from all of the buildings is shown. This will consist of
rainwater collection pipes that will serve as collection off roof run-offs. These will be transported
underground through a network of pipes to the treatment plant.
Figure 17. Showing rainwater harvesting layout.
61
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Summary
The purpose of this research project was to develop a model of housing and neighborhood
planning in Abuja – Nigeria. The model was developed by Ekanem Amba and includes
information gleaned from
- USGBC LEED® Homes
- USGBC LEED® Neighborhood Development
- Application of a Pattern Language by Alexander et al (1977)
- Ideas from Community and Privacy by Chermayeff and Alexander
Housing is one of the most important needs for man. The need for decent housing at an
affordable price is a luxury that most low income earners in the FCT-Abuja cannot afford. This
project intends to construct housing using materials that are regionally sourced and built to be
cost effective at the same time. By incorporating LEED ® and green building principles, this
facility intends to conserve energy and generate income.
62
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to create a housing model for low income earners in the
FCT-Abuja by incorporating LEED® and Green building principles. The residential units will be
energy efficient, providing opportunities for jobs, a decent life and access to living conditions
that are hygienic and safe. The complexity of model application success due to the limited
income of prospective residents to the model housing and neighborhood.
Future Research
The term ‘slum’ as described, is a thickly populated, run-down, squalid part of a city,
inhabited by poor people. Whether it be a ‘Favela de Rocinha’ (a Portuguese language word for
Brazilian shantytown), a skid row (a run-down or dilapidated urban area with a large,
impoverished population), the Dharavi slum, Mumbai-India, Barrio (a lower-class neighborhood
with largely Spanish speaking residents basically the Latino equivalent of a ‘ghetto’), Lagos
slums or the growing slums in Abuja, they all have similar characteristics. These are areas that
need to be focused on for future research:
- Further research in applying the model developed in this research to slum areas in other
parts of the world.
- A look into different sizes of residential housing units. A wider variety of housing that
caters specifically to the needs and family sizes of the residents.
- An in-depth research into the National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Green
Building Guidelines.
- Research into rainwater harvesting.
63
- Research o low – cost, affordable housing units.
- Research individual components of the proposed model neighborhood:
(i) Agriculture (farming)
(ii) Housing
(iii) Water supply systems
(iv) Sanitary systems.
64
REFERENCES
Olotuah, A. (2002). Recourse to earth for low-cost housing in Nigeria. Building and
environment, 37(1), 123.
Eaves, E. (2007). Two billion slum dwellers. Retrieved 06/11, 2011, www.forbes.com
Gavieta, R. C. (1991). Mass housing based on traditional design and indigenous materials
for passive cooling in the tropical urban climate of the Philippines. Energy and Buildings,
16(3-4), 925-932.
Harris, B. (2011). A list of house types. Retrieved 11/20, 2011, from www.wikipedia.org
Herlin, S. J. (2003). Ancient african civilizations.
Hildebrand, H. (1997). In Varma C. V. J., Rao A. R. G. (Eds.), Optimization model for
decentralised power system planning.
Ibem, E. O. (2011). The contribution of Public–Private partnerships (PPPs) to improving
accessibility of low-income earners to housing in southern Nigeria. Journal of Housing and the
Built Environment, 26(2), 201-217. doi:10.1007/s10901-011-9213-1
65
Kahn, E. (2007). Map room. Print, 61(3), 16-16. Retrieved from http://0-
search.ebscohost.com.maurice.bgsu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=voh&AN=25066992&login.
asp&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Lee, K. (2007). Sustainability assessment and development direction of super high-rise
residential complexes from the viewpoints of residents. Journal of Asian Architecture and
Building Engineering, 6(1), 127-134.
Ohaeri, V. (2010). The Planned Demolition of Lugbe Community, FCT-Abuja. Retrieved
from info@serac.org.serac@linkserve.com.ng
Shah, A. (1998) Poverty Facts and Stats in Global Issues. Retrieved from
http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty-facts-and-stats
Zurbrugg, C. & Schertenleib, R. (1998). Main Problems and Issues of Municipal Solid
Waste Management in Developing Countries with Emphasis on Problems Related to Disposal by
Landfill. 1998. (p.2) Retrieved from
http://www.eawag.ch/forschung/sandec/publikationen/swm/dl/swm-problems-disposal.pdf
Yellamraju, V. (2010). Leed-New Construction Project Management (Green Source).
McGraw-Hill. (p.101-186)
Green Neighborhood Development USGBC LEED® - ND (2009) by The US Breen
Building Council and Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC).
66
Alexander, C., Ishikawa, S., Silverstein, M (1977). A Pattern Language. New York.
Oxford University Press.
Chermayeff, S., Alexander, C. (1963). Community & Privacy: Towards a New
Architecture of Humanism. New York. Doubleday & Company Inc.
Kwa, A. (2001) Agriculture in developing countries: Which way forward? Retrieved
from http://www.focusweb.org/publications/2001/agriculture_which_way_forward.html
Nigeria (2012) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria
Abuja District (2012) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuja
Nigeria (2012) Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/ni.html
Satellite town ( 2012) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_town
Natural Resources and Development, (2003). Retrieved from
http://www.onlinenigeria.com/links/abujaadv.asp?blurb=392
Green Buildings (2012) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building
67
NAHB (2012) Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAHB
S.D. Wapwera, Ali Parsa, Charles Egbu, (2011) "Financing low income housing in
Nigeria", Journal of Financial Management of Property and Construction, Vol. 16 Iss: 3, pp.283
– 301. DOI: 10.1108/13664381111179242
Ferguson, B., Smets, P., (2009) Finance for Incremental Housing; Current Status and
Prospects for Expansion, Habitat International, doi:10.1016/j.habitatint.2009.11.008
Federal Republic of Nigeria: Public Administration Country Profile. (2004) Division of
Public Administration and Development Management (DPADM) United Nations. Retrieved
from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023282.pdf
Smets, P. (2000), ROSCA as a Source of Housing Finance for the Urban Poor: An
Analysis of Self-Help Practices from Hyderabad, India. Community development Journal
Vol. 35 pp.16-30
Saka, A. (2010) The Long Run Effects of Monetization on the Nigerian Economy.
Retrieved from http://www.academicjournals.org/jeif/pdf/pdf%202011/May/Saka.pdf
Mobolaji, A. (2003, July 15). The Monetization of Fringe Benefits in the Public Service
(on line ed. of dawodu.com) Dedicated to Nigeria Socio Political Issue.
68
Ramachandran, M. (2003, August 11). Monetization as a Preferred Option. The Hindu
Online Edition of India’s National Newspaper.
69

Housing Design

Enviado por

Dados do documento

Título original

Direitos autorais

Formatos disponíveis

Compartilhar este documento

Compartilhar ou incorporar documento

Opções de compartilhamento

Você considera este documento útil?

Este conteúdo é inapropriado?

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Housing Design

Enviado por

Direitos autorais:

Formatos disponíveis

Bowling Green State University

A Model of Housing Design and Neighborhood

Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/ms_tech_mngmt

Ekanem Etim Amba

A Project Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENT

Dr. Wilfred H. Roudebush, (Chair)

Dr. C. Wayne Unsell

Dr. Alan Atalah

recycle and manage waste, and grow agricultural products.

To God Almighty who is always with me.

to be the best I can be and not be afraid to try.

helped in making this project a success.

Dr. Wilfred Roudebush

Dr. Alan Atalah

Dr. C. Wayne Unsell

Context of the Problem……………………………………………………….1

General Characteristics of Satellite Towns in the FCT – Abuja……………..5

Statement of the Problem…………….……………………………………….7

Objectives of the Study……………………………………………………….7

Significance of the Study……………………………………………………..8

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Housing System in Nigeria………………….………………………………...13

Monetization in the Nigerian Civil Service…………………………………...14

Demolition in the FCT……………………………………….………………..15

Existing Housing Conditions and Energy Concerns…….………………….…16

What is USGBC LEED®? ...............................................................................18

CHAPTER III. METHODS

Restatement of the Problem……………………………………………………25

Restatement of the Objectives………………………………………………….25

CHAPTER IV. FINDINGS

Restatement of the Problem……………………………………………………29

Green Neighborhood Development USGBC LEED-ND®……………………29

Neighborhood Pattern and Design……………………………………………..31

Green Infrastructure and Building……………………………………………...33

LEED® Homes Reference Guide………………………………………………37

Regional Materials and Resources easily sought in the FCT – Abuja…………42

Areas of the FCT ………………………………………………..…….47

New Innovations that can be incorporated in the Proposed Housing Design…47

Maintenance, security and regulation policies…………………………………47

Selected Patterns from A Pattern language…………………………………….52

NAHB Green Homes…………………………………………………………...56

Schematic Design of Residential Units…………………………………………62

CHAPTER V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Figure 1. Showing Map of the FCT – Abuja, Nigeria………………………………………….6

Figure 2. Showing Different Kinds of Marble………………………………………………….43

Figure 3. Showing Tin in its Raw Form………………………………………………………..44

Figure 4. Showing Manually Cut Stone from Rock…………………………………………....45

Figure 5. Showing Wolframite and Tantalite…………………………………………………..45

Figure 6. Showing Red Clay Deposits…………………………………………………………46

Figure 7. Showing the Facility Management Structure for the Project………………………..48

Figure 9. Showing Individually Owned Shops………………………………….………………

Figure 10. Showing the Number of Stories Pattern………………………………………………

Figure 12. Showing the Long Thin House Pattern……………………………….……………56

Context of the Problem

Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic

the Nigerian economy in 2011. Nigeria, (2012).

increase annually. Nigeria (2012).

Polygreen, in the interest of cultivating an image of a world-class city, comparable to London,

name of spiffing up the city. Polygreen (2006).

function, complete with social hierarchies, commerce and a degree of a home-grown

impoverished population), the Dharavi slum, Mumbai-India, Barrio (A lower-class neighborhood

of the illnesses that afflict humanity’ Stillwaggon (2010).