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Geomorphological Mapping
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Geomorphological mapping
Jan-Christoph Otto1 and Mike J. Smith2
1
Department of Geography and Geology, University of Salzburg, Austria (jan-
christoph.otto@sbg.ac.at)
2
Department of Geography, Geology and Environment, Kingston University London
(michael.smith@kingston.ac.uk)
Typical preparation includes the gathering of When using digital devices such as mobile
additional information on the area (location, field computers, mapping is generally
accessibility, history, and previous work), the performed using field mapping software. This
choice of mapping scale and symbols, as well allows for the digitisation of vector data
as planning the mapping campaign (Knight, directly onto the screen. The base data for
et al., 2011). The analysis of aerial imagery mapping (topographic map, aerial photo,
or DEMs helps to familiarise the observer DEM) are stored on the field device. For
with the field area and should always be exact positioning the field computer should
performed before mapping. This results in a be connected to a GPS. The application of a
draft map that includes major landforms digital mapping device requires the
mapped from the remote sensing data. The preparation of the GIS data base structure
draft map is taken into the field for prior to the field campaign (Figure 1).
verification, addition of detail and delineation
of exact boundaries. The creation of a field
mapping protocol that details the steps of the
mapping campaign is important as it allows
the organised collection of additional
information on landforms and the creation of
a database for the data mapped in the field
(Knight, et al., 2011).
Key equipment
Paper based (analogue) field mapping is
usually performed using tracing paper, a
topographic map of the area of interest, a
clipboard and a pencil. The topographic map
is used for orientation and location and
should be enlarged to the mapping scale.
Aerial photos and/or relief shaded (see
below) images at the same scale are also
useful. Other tools include a global
positioning system (GPS) receiver for the
collection of waypoints or the exact
positioning of boundaries and objects.
Additionally, binoculars are useful particularly
in mountain areas to investigate inaccessible Figure 1. A typical GIS data base structure
terrain. In order to have all the required for a geomorphological mapping project (after
symbols at hand, the legend system of the Gustavsson et al., 2008).
symbols should be printed out and taken into
the field.
however it reintroduces the above controls on a localised increase in contrast. RRS (Hillier
representation, particularly azimuth biasing. It and Smith, 2008) takes a different approach
is therefore desirable to utilise methods that and begins with the conceptual
are free from azimuth biasing, however these understanding that landscapes are comprised
may not improve identification rates of of different elevation elements that are
landforms (Smith and Clark, 2005); in "stacked" on top of one another - these often
addition, if interpreters are not familiar with occur at different width-scales and if the
the output from these techniques, then they regional-scale relief is removed, then the
may find landform identification more difficult. small-scale "remainder" (or residual) can be
extracted. These residuals ideally only
Gradient is perhaps the most common contain features of interest, however as this
method (Figure 2b) and measures the is a scale-based technique it will contain all
steepness of slope (rate of change of features at that scale and this can include
elevation); as landforms often have steep anthropogenic features.
sides they can be readily identified. The rate
of change of gradient is curvature and is
comprised of three components (Schmidt et
Semi-Automated Mapping
al., 2003): profile, planform and tangential. Given the benefits of objective and
repeatable methods, automated and semi-
Profile curvature is particularly pertinent as it automated techniques are highly desirable.
measures downslope curvature, helping They utilise algorithms to quantitatively
identify breaks-of-slope. Two other common process input data in order to identify
methods include local contrast stretch (LCS) landforms, however the complexity of the
and residual relief separation (RRS). LCS process often results in low or moderate
(Smith and Clark, 2005) uses the concept of levels of accuracy when compared to manual
relative elevation and that a landform is methods - as a result this remains an active
spatially distinct from neighbouring features - topic of research that is evolving rapidly
a standard linear contrast stretch is applied to (Seijmonsbergen et al., 2011). The area
a region of a specified size, thereby providing borrows heavily from the classification of
Figure 2 Illustrating the effect of relief shading (a) and gradient (b; darker tones are steep
slopes) on the detectability of drumlins from high resolution DEMs of the same area
British Society for Geomorphology Geomorphological Techniques, Chap. 2, Sec. 6 (2013)
Geomorphological Mapping 6
satellite imagery (Mather, 2004) where landscape with all its elements on a two-
feature extraction techniques are used to dimensional sheet of paper. To deliver this
identify surface features using reflectance at complex information, geomorphological maps
different wavelengths. For mapping, different make full use of a variety of elements of
wavelength inputs are replaced with different cartographic design. Different kinds of
LSPs and then processed using either symbols and colours need to be arranged
supervised or unsupervised techniques and composed carefully in order to generate
(Lillesand et al., 2008). Supervised a readable map that clearly expresses the
techniques require interaction with a mapper content and message of the project.
and include methods such as rule-based
object classification, cluster analysis (e.g. Before starting the process of map design it
maximum likelihood) and regression is necessary to review the following questions
analyses. Unsupervised techniques involve (Otto et al., 2011):
unsupervised object based classification,
What is the purpose, message, and
clustering (e.g. k-means), and machine
central theme of the map?
learning. Perhaps the most promising
approach is rule-based object classification Who has commissioned the map?
(Blaschke, 2010), more commonly termed
object-based image analysis (OBIA). Unlike Who will be using the map?
more "traditional" remote sensing based How will the reader use the map
classification techniques that operate on a (office, field)?
pixel-by-pixel approach, OBIA operates on
the fundamental principle that landforms are Applications of geomorphological maps range
conglomerations of pixels. The two-stage from simple descriptions of a field site, for
process begins by using input LSPs to example accompanying a journal publication
segment the image in to clusters of pixels or construction site report, to specialised land
using a multi-scale algorithm; once complete system analyses, for example for land
a set of classification rules is then applied to management or natural hazard assessment.
the objects The segmentation is controlled by It is equally important to consider the
parameters restricting the size and shape of production process and dissemination of the
clusters, with the size particularly important final product. Is it a paper map? Is the map
for landforms - recent developments have produced in colour or black and white? Is the
seen automated techniques for optimising the map accompanying a journal publication?
scale parameter for landform extraction Will it be published online? These issues
(Anders et al., 2011, Dragut et al., 2010). strongly influence how to compile and
arrange the data, which symbols are used,
It is worth noting that testing mapping how the various map items are composed
techniques is a difficult task as it requires a and whether colour can be used or not (Otto,
pre-existent knowledge of landforms to et al., 2011).
determine if an identification of individual
features is successful. A higher spatial Communication with maps differs significantly
resolution dataset or manual mapping under from other types of human communication.
"controlled" conditions are often used. Hillier Maps are visual media and evoke visual
and Smith (2012) take a different approach stimuli that cause different reactions in
and place synthetic landforms in a real people than books or conversations. Graphic
landscape allowing a priori knowledge of the communication, like maps, delivers all
landforms present. This can allow information at once. That means information
unequivocal testing of the landform mapping is not perceived sequentially, but
method. instantaneously with respect to the location
and relative position on the map sheet or
screen. Thus, the appearance and
Digital Output composition of graphical elements need to be
considered thoughtfully. On a map, all
Geomorphological maps are a specific kind of information is spatially related and should be
thematic map that use complex and considered holistically. The composition of
illustrative symbolisation. The challenge of map items determines if and how the reader
mapping is to portray a three-dimensional
understands the message, with perception terrain, for example mountain areas, the
and understanding occurring subconsciously. greater the diversity of symbols and colours
To allow map-users to understand the required (Verstappen, 2011).
meaning of the map, a visual link to the
symbols and their attributes that correspond In general geomorphological maps and their
to the intention of the cartographer needs to legend systems can be differentiated into
be assigned (Robinson et al., 1995). maps showing a single aspect of
geomorphology, most commonly morphology,
and analytical maps that encompass the full
The basis for most geomorphological maps is
information of a landscape including
a topographic base map presenting contour
processes, morphogenesis and even
lines and the general layout of the
lithology (Knight et al., 2011, Verstappen,
hydrography and infrastructure. The basic
2011). An overview of different legend
representations of objects on maps are the
systems is provided by Otto et al. (2011), in
symbol primitives: point, line, and area (also
part highlighting how different countries have
referred to as marker, line and polygon
developed their own systems, either formally
symbols) (Robinson et al., 1995). Whether a
or informally, to suit their own cultural needs.
linear feature in nature is represented by a
line symbol on the map is primarily a question
In Britain most geomorphological maps focus
of scale. For example, a river could be
on the representation of form producing
depicted by a blue line. On larger maps (with
morphological maps (Cooke and Doornkamp,
increasing size of the map items) the river
1990, Evans, 1990) with significant breaks in
would be depicted using an area symbol of
slope the most dominant information. The
the river shoreline. The map scale also
purely morphometric information can be
determines if a landform is depicted by a
extended by morphogenetic and material
point symbol, or if it is split into its
information to complete the geomorphological
morphological components. Rock glaciers for
representation of landscapes.
example could be represented by a single
point symbol on small scale maps, or by the
Most maps are generated using GIS or
assemblage of line and area symbols that
graphic design software, but only a few
differentiate the step height of the rock glacier
symbols sets exist that have been developed
front, furrows and ridges and the
for digital application. Many legend symbols
accumulation of boulders and blocks on top
are so complex that automated drawing by
of the rock glacier, if the map scale increases
GIS/graphic design software is not possible.
(Otto et al., 2011).
Among the few exemptions are the "Mapping
Symbols for High Mountains" (Otto, 2008,
Line and pattern symbols (or shading) are
Otto and Dikau, 2004) and the legend for
commonly used for illustrating gradient and
geomorphological mapping developed by the
morphology. Some guidelines for the creation
Institute de Géographie de l’Université de
of geomorphological maps have been
Lausanne (IGUL) (Maillard et al., 2011,
established by the International Geographical
Schoeneich et al., 1998) which can be used
Union (IGU) Subcommission of
with Esri ArcGIS. Figure 3 shows a
Geomorphological Survey and Mapping
geomorphological map of a high alpine valley
(Gilewska, 1968).
(Käfertal, Austria) produced in ArcGIS using
the symbol set of Otto (2008).
Geomorphological legend systems
A large number of symbols and legends have Online maps
been developed since the onset of
Digitally produced geomorphological maps
geomorphological mapping in the early 20th
hold the potential for online publication. The
century (Passarge, 1914). The impressive
possibilities range from simple publication of
diversity of concepts and cartographic
raster maps or single vector layers as
conventions created in different scientific
overlays for Google Earth to the generation of
communities throughout Europe and the US
a genuine webGIS application containing
is related to the terrain configuration of the
each single layer of information of the
surveyed region and the scientific focus and
geomorphological map. While the former is
aim of the map. The more complex the
Figure 3: Geomorphological map of the Kafertal, Hohe Tauern, Austrian Alps using the
"Mapping Symbols for High Mountains" (Otto, 2008, Otto and Dikau, 2004).
1990s as the benefits for direct application Dramis F, Guida D, Cestari A. 2011. Nature
were recognised. The forefront of and Aims of Geomorphological Mapping. In
geomorphology has seen the integration of Geomorphological Mapping: methods and
process-level understanding with regional applications. Smith MJ, Paron P, Griffiths J
scale modelling. GIS provides the underlying (eds.). Elsevier: London, 39-74
framework; maps and mapping are an
Dykes AP. 2008. Geomorphological maps of
integral part of this process and the skills,
Irish peat landslides created using hand-held
knowledge and understanding of the methods
GPS. Journal of Maps 2008: 258-276
for data collection, processing and output are
a key element. Geomorphological mapping is Embleton C, Verstappen HT. 1988. The
the underpinning domain as geomorphology nature and objectives of applied
moves centre-stage. geomorphological mapping. Zeitschrift für
Geomorphologie, Supplementband 68: 1-8