-

CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project work “design, construction of 3kva inverter with

automatic charging system was carried out by Ngirigwa uzoma b. with reg

number 20091669355 of the department of physics , Federal university of

Technology, Owerri.

…………………. ………………………

Mr. Solomon Udensi Date

(Project supervisor)

……………………. ………………………

Dr. Orji Date

(H.O.D)

……………………... ………………….......

External supervisor Date

1
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating

current (AC). The converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency

with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits. Inverters

are mostly powered by batteries or solar panels.

With the increasing popularity of alternate power sources, such as solar and wind,

the need for inverters to convert DC energy stored in batteries to conventional

AC form has increased substantially. Inverters use the concept of accepting the

DC supply into the oscillator section which converts the high current DC signal

to a low current AC; these signals are carried by high current switching devices

(MOSFETs) at a fixed frequency from the oscillator. Since the MOSFETs are

connected to a step-up transformer, the voltage is now increased to a desired

output level depending on the transformer windings.

There are basically two kinds of DC-AC inverters in the market today. One

category is the “pure sine-wave” inverter, which produces sine waves with total

harmonic distortion (THD) in the range of 3%. The other is a modified sine wave

inverter; these types of inverters have THD in the range of 25%.

Waveforms approaching sine waves, with minimal distortion, are required in any

case. These inverters are available in sizes up to several thousand watts. Early

2
techniques for designing these true sine wave inverters incorporated significant

linear technology, reducing their efficiency and contributing to their higher cost.

More recent designs used pulse-width modulation (PWM) to produce a pulsed

waveform that can be filtered relatively easy to achieve a good approximation to

a sine wave.

The significant advantage of the PWM approach is that switching techniques are

used in the power stages, resulting in relatively high efficiency.

However, PWM, with the pulse width made to vary according to the amplitude of

a sine wave, requires significant control circuitry and high-speed switching. This

is because the frequency of the PWM signal has to be much higher than that of

the sine wave to be synthesized if the PWM signal is to be filtered effectively. So

the PWM approach introduces significant complexities and switching losses. The

second category consists of relatively inexpensive units, producing modified sine-

wave outputs, which could logically be called “modified square waves” instead.

They are basically square waves with some dead spots between positive and

negative half-cycles. The efficiency of an inverter is highly dependent on the

switching devices, topology, and the switching frequency of the inverter.

Inverters are typically used for medical instruments and other critical

applications. For example, they are used in boats and as the main source of

electricity, and some feed energy back into the utility power grid, they are also

used in homes and offices.

3
There should be no limitations in the use of an electric gadget at a fixed location

due to unreliable power supply.

Finally, there are a couple of important safety aspects to bear in mind whenever

you’re using a DC-AC inverter. Many people assume that because an inverter is

operated from a nominal 12V battery and it can’t deliver as much output as a

normal mains power outlet, it’s relatively safe. Nothing could be further from the

truth. Even a low power inverter rated at a mere 60 watts has an output which is

potentially fatal, if you should end up connected across it. Such an inverter can

typically deliver up to about 360mA at 230V, which is over TEN TIMES the

current level needed to stop your heart. Needless to say higher power inverters

are even more dangerous.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

There are various types of power inverters in the market. They range from the

very expensive to the inexpensive, with various degrees of quality, efficiency and

power output capability. Continuous power supply has always been an issue

when it comes to the use of inverters

1.3 Objectives of the study

The objectives of this project are to develop an automatic power inverter that can

convert 12/24VDC to 230VAC, that is:

 Able to produce power continuously without breaking,

 Suitable for rural areas, camping and vacations,

4
  To serve as an alternative source of power for homes when electrical

power goes off.

 To obtain a reliable and economical source of power.

 To promote the use of power inverters in other to save energy that

contributes to global warming or greenhouse effects.

1.4 Scope of project

The scope of work is to design an inverter circuit and automatic battery charger

that will recharge the battery while in use and produce a continuous power

supply. The output voltage waveform of the inverter is to be sinusoidal and with a

high output gain.

Minimum power is required by its controlling circuit and the semi-conductor

device used in the inverter is to be of minimum switching and conduction losses.

1.5 Significance of the study

Increasingly, governments around the world are turning to renewable energy to

end our dependence on fossil fuels. Homes, businesses, community groups and

schools are being encouraged to install solar power and other renewable sources

of energy, like the power inverters to reduce green house effect on the

environment.

This is a simple project which is easy to build and cheap, as all the parts are

readily available on the market. With average background in engineering, the

inverter circuit can be made and used at all times. It can be constructed and used

5
in the villages where there is no electricity. The inverter can be transported and

used anywhere when necessary.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

In the past centuries, conversion of DC to AC power was accomplished through

the use of rotary converter or motor- generator set. In the early twentieth century,

vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes were used as switches in inverter circuits. The

most widely used type of tube was the thyratron (any of several types of

thermoelectric valve once used as a high-speed switch).

Early AC to DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor directly

connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator’s commutator reversed

its connection at the same moment to produce DC.

Latest development is the synchronous converter in which the motor and

generator windings are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end

and a commutator at the other end with only one field frame. The result with

either AC in or DC out, with a motor generator set. The DC can be considered to

be separately generated from the AC with a synchronous converter. Given the

right auxiliary and control equipment, Motor-Generator (M-G) set or rotary

converter can be “run backwards” converting DC to AC.

Controlled rectifier inverters

Since early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current

ratings for most inverter applications, it was the introduction of thyristor or

silicon – controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state

7
inverter circuits. The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration

in SCR circuit designs.

They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum

holding current, which varies with each kind of SCR through some external

process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs

naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected

to a DC power source usually require a means of forced commutations that forces

the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR

circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced computation, with the

addition of forced commutation circuit, SCR have been used in the types of

inverter circuits described above.

In applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC

power source, it is possible to use AC to DC controlled rectifier circuits operating

in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit

operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in

HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of

motor control systems. Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source

input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual type of six – step voltage source

inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a

current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter SCRs is switched in a six

– step sequence to direct the current to a three – phase AC load as a stepped

current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include load commutation

8
and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current

regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a

synchronous motor operated at a leading power phase factor. As they have

become available in higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors such as

transistor or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control signals have

become the preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits.

DC and AC current

In the world today, there are currently two forms of electrical transmission, Direct

Current (DC) and Alternating Current (AC), each with its advantages and

disadvantages. DC power is simply the application of a steady constant voltage

across a circuit resulting in a constant current. A battery is the most common

source of DC transmission as current flows from one end of a circuit to the other.

Most digital circuitry today is run on DC power as it has the ability to provide

either a constant high or constant low voltage, enabling digital logic to process

code executions.

Historically, electricity was first commercially transmitted by Thomas Edison,

and was a DC power line. However, this electricity was of low voltage, due to the

inability to step up DC voltage at the time, and thus it was not capable of

transmitting power over long distances.(Marcus, M. P, switching circuits for

engineers, 3rd edition, pretence – hall. 1995.)

When the voltage is increased, the current decreases exponentially, therefore high

voltage transmission reduces the power loss. For this reason, electricity was

9
generated at power stations and delivered to homes and businesses through AC

power.

Alternating current, unlike DC oscillates between two voltage values at a

specified frequency and its ever changing current and voltage makes it easy to

step up or down the voltage. For high voltage and long distance transmission

situations, all that is needed to step up or down the voltage is a transformer.

Developed in 1886 by William Stanley Jr.

(http://www.inverters.about.com/library/inverters/stanley.htm, June 16, 2011) the

transformer made long distance electrical transmission using AC power possible.

It should be noted that since 1954, there have been many high voltage DC

transmission systems implemented around the globe with the advent of DC / AC

converters, allowing the easy stepping up and down of DC voltages.

2.1 Types of Inverters and Waveforms

Inverters, besides coming in a wide variety of power capabilities, are

distinguished primarily by the shape of the alternating current wave they

produced. The three major waveforms are: square wave, modified sine wave and

true sine wave.

2.1.2 Square Wave

Square wave inverters are largely obsolete, as the waveform shape is not well

suited for running most modern appliances. Prices have come down considerably

in comparison with the superior modified sine wave and true sine wave types.

10
2.2.3 Modified sine wave

The least expensive type of modern inverter produces modified sine wave power.

The waveform looks like a stair step, where the power rises from zero to upper

peak voltage returns to zero and straight to lower peak voltage, resting to each

point for a moment.

Modified sine wave inverters can be used to run many household appliances such

as a television, radio, and microwaves with occasional minor electrical “noise’.

Sensitive equipment like battery chargers, tools with variable speed motors, laser

printers and certain heating controllers may run erratically but not with modified

sine wave power.

For a remote cabin with only the “basic” running on the electrical system,

modified sine wave inverters are also often well suited for solar powered

electrical systems.

2.2.4 True Sine Wave

The power supplied by utility companies and engine generator is a true sine

waveform. This is the most reliable waveform for household use. True sine wave

power passes from the upper and lower peak voltages in a smooth curved wave,

rather than the stair step of the modified sine wave.

All appliances and electronic equipment runs as intended when using sine wave

power. True sine wave inverters produces Ac power as good as or better than

utility power, ensuring that even the most sensitive equipment runs properly.

11
While sine wave inverters are more expensive than the modified sine wave

models, the quality of their waveform can be a definite advantage. This cost,

however is made up for in its ability to provide power to all AC electronic

devices, allow inductive loads to run faster and quiet, and reduce the audible and

electric noise in audio equipment, TV’s and fluorescent lights (Alanskan ABS,

2006).

2.2.5 Inverters and Application

DC power source Utilization

An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar

panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required

voltage. In particular, it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation,

or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltage.

Grid tie inverters can feed energy balk into the distribution network because they

produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied

by the distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of

a blackout.

Micro – inverter converts direct current from individual solar panels into

alternating current for the electric grid. They are grid tie designs by default.

12
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) uses batteries and inverter to supply AC

power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a

rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.

The development of static UPS clearly was dependent on the availability of solid

– state switching devices. The earliest conversion systems available in 1960 for

DC to AC were no more than mechanical vibrators with ratings not higher than

500VA used for radio/communications applications. The advent of power

transistors enabled the first true static inverters to be built, applications in the

early years being communications and instrumentation.

Induction heating

Inverter converts low frequency main AC power to higher frequency for use in

induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to produce DC power.

The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.

HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC

power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in

a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC.

Variable frequency drives

A variable – frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by

controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supply to the motor. An

inverter provides the controlled power. In most cases, the variable frequency

13
drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be provided from

main AC power. Since an inverter is the component, variable frequency drives

are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor controlled inverters are currently used to power traction

motors in some electric and diesel – electric rail vehicles as well as some battery

electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota prius

and Fisker karma.

Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for

electric vehicle applications. In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter

also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the

batteries.

2.3 TRANSFORMER

The transformer is the part of the circuit that is responsible for boosting the

voltage. It does this by means of iron ferrite core, primary and secondary

windings. It is important to note that the transformer does not create power; it

merely transforms or transfers it.

Ideally, power in is equal to power out, but in a real world case there is some

power loss in the device. The transformer operates by inducing a magnetic flux

on the core from the current flowing through the primary winding. This flux

passing through the core is induced onto the secondary winding and current flows

out of the device. (McGraw – hill, 1995.)

14
The transformers used in this project is used to step up the voltage to provide an

appropriate voltage of 240VAC with an approximate frequency of 50Hz and also

steps down to 15VAC to be rectified for the charger.

2.4 Battery

Essentially, a battery consists of one or more cells connected in series to give the

required voltage. A battery provides a voltage source that has a small internal

resistance.

The capacity of a battery is expressed in watts – hour (WH). The product of the

capacity and the voltage of a battery and its amount of energy are expressed in

ampere – hour (Ah). These three parameters vary with both temperature and the

rate of discharge.

Immediately a current is taken from the battery, there is a voltage drop across its

internal resistance and the terminal voltage drops to the plateau value. The larger

the current taken from the battery, the smaller will be the plateau voltage.

The open – circuit voltage may be larger than the nominal voltage by as much as

15%.

When the battery is exhausted its terminal voltage rapidly falls to a low value and

thus needs to be replaced or recharged. (Green D. C., 1995).

2.5 Battery chargers

Battery charging is a complex electrochemical process, in which the discharged

electric energy must be replenished from the electric network. The quality of the

charging process is critical to the health and longevity of batteries. As a result,

15
battery chargers play a key role in the eye and preface of today’s industrial

batteries.

A battery charger is an electrical / electronic device that converts the incoming

AC line voltage into a regulated DC voltage to meet the changing needs of the

respective battery. Although, the market is dominated by SCR chargers which

have been in existence for many years; new switch mode technologies are making

headways into the industrial battery charger markets. This is due to the higher

efficiencies and smaller sizes and weights that switch mode technologies offer

over SCR types. (Nasser Kutkut, 2000)

16
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS, METHODS AND TECHNIQUE

3.1 COMPONENTS USED

CATEGORY NAME QUANTITY

1 IC SG3524 1

LM358 1

2 CAPACITOR 1µF 3

10µF 4

100µF 6

0.1µF 4

FILTER CAPACITOR 0.1µF/400V 1

3 RESISTOR 1K 10

10K 4

47K 2

4.7K 5

22K 4

1M 1

100K 4

17
4 DIODES LED 2

ZENER

4.7V 1

IN4148 9

5 TRANSISTORS MOSFET

IRF3205 9

BJT

BC327 3

BC547 1

6 TRANSFORMER STEP UP 1

STEP DOWN 1

Table1; Components used

18
3.1.1 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE INVERTER WITH
CHARGING SYSTEM

This project consists of few semiconductor devices which help in the conversion
of the incoming Dc voltage to AC voltage in the oscillator stage,

Charger
INPUT (AC) TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER CHARGE
CONTROLLER
240 VOLTS

Inverter
INPUT (DC) OSCILLATOR AMPLIFIER OUTPUT (AC)

24 VOLTS 240 VOLTS

Figure 3.1; Basic block diagram of inverter with the charging system.

The current is amplified by the switching transistors and sent to the transformer

for the voltage to be stepped up to the required range (220-240volts).

19
3.1.2 BASIC OSCILLATOR BLOCK DIAGRAM

The oscillator stage consists of a resistor-capacitor network connected to a multi-

signal IC to form a multi-vibrator circuit which produces the sinusoidal wave at

the output terminals of the IC. The voltage regulator LM7812 keeps the 24volts

input voltage constant at 12volts for the circuit to oscillate properly.

AC
INPUT (DC) VOLTAGE INTEGRATED
REGULATOR CIRCUIT
24 VOLTS

Figure 3.2; Basic oscillator block diagram

This stage also has a FET driver which charges and discharges the MOSFET gate

capacitance rapidly to ensure high speed switching of the MOSFETs.

The frequency of the oscillator was calculator using F = 1/2ΠRC, where R, C is

the resistor and capacitor respectively.

20
3.1.3 MOSFET DRIVER

The emitter-feedback circuit comprises of resistor, diode, and a PNP Transistor.

R1 determines the operating point of the driver and also controls the base current

(IB). D1 is used to ensure one-directional flow of current; it also allows only

positive pulses to pass through it. While Q1 as it goes on and off, discharges the

mosfets gate capacitance and vice versa.

Figure 3.3; mosfet driver circuit

3.1.4 LOW VOLTAGE CUT-OFF (INPUT 24V)

This stage involves an operational amplifier LM358 wired as a voltage

comparator having a fixed voltage at the inverting input and a variable voltage at

the non-inverting input.

21
INPUT OP.
(DC) AMP. RELAY
24
VOLTS

Figure 3.4; Block diagram of a low voltage cut-off

.

At the non-inverting input pin, we have resistors connected in series using the

voltage divider rule to sense the decrease in the battery voltage so as to allow the

OP. AMP. Change its state at the output region. When the output is low, the IC

shuts down the Inverter.

Figure 3.5; Low voltage cut-off circuit diagram

22
3.2 THE CHARGING SYSTEM

When the mains input (240v) comes in, the transformer steps down the voltage to

about 27volts and the bridge rectifier converts the ac to dc, then the rectified

voltage is sent to the battery through the charge controller, when the battery is

fully charged to about 27.5volts (the batteries have tolerance of 2(+/-2.5volts)

because they are in series, the controller disconnects the battery from the charger

with the help of a relay, thereby keeping the battery cells in a good charge

condition.

23
3.2.1 FABRICATION PROCEDURE

This design is divided into three sections, the oscillator section, the

device/switching section and the output section

3.2.2 OSCILLATOR SECTION

The IC SG3524 (integrating circuit) is used in the oscillating section of this

inverter. This IC is used to generate the 50Hz frequency required to generate AC

supply by the inverter. To start this process, battery supply is given to the pin-15

of the ICSG3524 through on/off switch which passes through the normally close

contact of the relay. Pin-8 is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. A

voltage regulator LM7812 is connected across the battery through two capacitors

connected in parallel and grounded as shown in the circuit below. This regulates

the 12V supply from the battery.

Pin-6 and 7 of the IC are the oscillation section pins. The frequency produced by

the IC depends on the value of the capacitor and resistor connected at these pins.

The two capacitors (each 0.1uf) are connected to pin-7 and decide the 50Hz

frequency output by the IC. Pin-6 is timing resistance pin and helps the oscillator

frequency constant. Preset variable resistor is connected to ground from pin-6 of

the IC and used so that the value of the output frequency can be adjusted to a

constant 50Hz. A fixed resistor of 100k is connected in series with the variable

resistor to give a given frequency as shown by the relation:

24
F=1/ (RTCT)

Where F is the frequency in Hz

RT is the total resistance at pin-6

CT is the total capacitance at pin-7

Therefore, to obtain a frequency of 50Hz

Therefore, RT becomes, RT=1/FCT

Therefore we have that RT must be varied to obtain a frequency of 50Hz.

In my design, I fixed resistor of 100K and a variable resistor of 100k.

This 50Hz frequency alternating signal has an output at pin-11 and 14 of the IC.

This alternating signal may also be known as the MOS drive signal. This MOS

drive signal at pin-11 and 14 are between 5-6V. Voltage at these pins should be

same, because any variation in the voltage at these pins could damage the

MOSFET at the output. The circuit diagram of the oscillation section is shown

below.

25
Figure 3.6; the circuit diagram of the inverter

26
Figure 3.7; the snapshot of the designed inverter whose circuit diagram is shown

in figure 3.6

27
3.2.3 SWITCHING SECTION

The MOS drive signal from the pin-11 and 14 of the IC are given to the base of

the transistor T1 and T2. This results to the MOS drive signal getting separated

into two different channels. Transistor T1 and T2 amplify the 50Hz MOS drive

signal at their base to a sufficient level and output them from the emitter while

the collector are grounded.

50Hz signal from the emitter of T1 is given to the gate of each MOSFET in the

MOSFET channel, through resistance R4-2K. Each MOSFET gate receives the

50Hz signal through a resistor (R6-R9).

And also 50Hz signal from the emitter of T2 is given to the gate of each MOSFT in the second MOSFET
channel, through resistance R19-2K. Each MOSFET gate receives the 50Hz signal through a resistor
(R14 –R17). When the first MOSFET channel is switched on, the current flows through the first half of
the inverter transformer winding and when the second MOSFET channel turns ON, the current flows
through the second half of the inverter transformer winding. This switching on/off of the MOSFET
channels will start an alternating current in the winding of inverter transformer. This AC current in the
winding will induce an AC current of 50Hz, in the 220 and 240v tapings of the transformer. The AC
voltage output from the transformer is connected to the normally close of the relay to the output
socket.

3.2.4 THE OUTPUT SECTION

The 50Hz alternating MOS drive signal reaches each MOSFET channel separately. This results in the
MOSFET channels being alternating on and off that is when the first channel is ON the second channel
will be OFF, and when the second channel is ON, the first will be OFF. This on/off switching is repeated
50 times per second. The drain (D) of all the MOSFETs of one channel is connected together and
connected to one end of the inverter transformer’s winding. Likewise the drain of the MOSFET of the
second channel is also connected together and connected to the other end of the inverter
transformer’s winding. The position terminal of the battery is connected to the centre tapping of the
winding and results to positive supply reaching the drain of each MOSFET transistor through each end
of the winding. The Source (S) terminal of each MOSFET is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery through a shunt of low value resistance. This is because polarity of the 50Hz MOS drive signal
at pin-11 and 14 are different at a time, only one channel from the output channel remains ON, the
other channel stays OFF.

28
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 TEST AND ANALYSIS

Firstly, the battery was tested for polarity and the actual value, which is 24volts

also obtained. If the battery voltage is lower than this value, the inverter would

not function.

Secondly, test was carried out on the charging system of the inverter. The

multimeter showed that 27volts was available for charging, below which the

battery would not charge.

Thirdly, the no load current which the inverter was drawing from the battery was

measured and 0.5A obtained (the load current for this work is in the range of 0-

1A, above which the inverter would automatically turn off)

The inverter output was connected to an oscilloscope to check the output wave

form, and a modified sine wave was produced.

29
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

Investigations showed that the inverter with automatic charger was realized and

can be applied to house hold appliances and electrical equipment. The PCB was

successfully fabricated. There was no limitation in the use of an electronic tool or

gadget at a fixed location due to power limitations and unreliable power supply.

The invention can make power supply more accessible to everyone, both those in

the remote and rural areas. In other to achieve goals of this project, two batteries

were used to switch the device at 24volts. The batteries recharge automatically in

other to produce continuous power supply to be used. Finally, depending on the

availability of further advanced technologies, this type of power inverter with

automatic charger could be further improved on the efficiency and reduce size by

the use of transformer means.

30
5.2 RECOMMENDATION

This project has successfully been demonstrated by converting a 24VDC to

220VAC with an automatic charger and it is recommended for medical

equipment. Further work on this project may include:

the harmonics that were produced using the high frequency switching can be

isolated using a small low-pass filter.

Better PCB software should be used in other to simulate the circuit diagram

before building the hardware. This will ensure higher efficiency of the inverter.

Microcontroller can also be used as the voltage comparator to disconnect the

batteries from the inverter and also used in the oscillator. The microcontroller

type should be ATMEGA 128.

in other to make the switching of the transistors more efficient, IGBTs should

be used because they handle more power than the mosfets.

31
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John bird (2000); Electrical and Electronics Principle and Technology, Great;

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2188, 2364, 2429, 2567-2688

King Alexander, Knight William; Uninterruptible power supplies and standby

power systems. Mc Graw – Hill, 2 Penn Plaza, New York. 2003.

32
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34