TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cements………………………………………………………………………………………....... 1

Grade of Cements…………………………………………… ……………………………………

Manufacture of Cement…………………………………………………………………………... 3

Concrete chemical and applications

Mix design concept

Mix design as per BIS & ACI Methods

Manufacturing of Concrete

Batching

Mixing

Transporting

Placing

Compaction of concrete

Curing

Finishing

Testing of Fresh Concrete

Slump Test
 Flow Test

Kelly Ball Test

Testing of Hardened Concrete

Semi-Destructive Testing

Windsor probe test

Pull Out Test

Non-Destructive Testing

Rebound hammer test

Ultrasonic pulse velocity method

Radioactive method

Quality of Concrete
Process of manufacture of concrete

The various stages of manufacture of concrete are:

 Batching

 Mixing

 Transporting

 Placing

 Compacting

 Curing

 Finishing

Batching

Batching of aggregates and cements is best done by weight, since dispensing of solids on

a volume basis can lead to gross errors. Only water and liquid admixtures can be measured

accurately by volume

The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching.

Volume batching – Gauge box

Weigh batching – weight machine

Mixing

The objective of mixing which is done either by rotation or stirring, is to coat the surface

of all the aggregate particles with cement paste, and to blend all the ingredients of concrete to a
uniform mass. However, overly long mixing times do not improve the quality of concrete and

may severely limit the output of the batching plant.

There are two methods for mixing concrete:

 Hand mixing

 Machine mixing.

The usual type of mixer is a batch mixer, there are four types of batch mixers:

a. Tilting drums mixer: are common used for small jobs, are also available in large sizes and

have an arrangement of interior fixed blades to ensure end-to-end exchange of material during

mixing.

b. Pan-type mixers: are particularly good for mixing lean and dry mixers. They are commonly

used in precast concrete plants, where their greater bulk and less convenient discharge are not

necessarily disadvantages.

c. Continuous mixer: the materials are fed into a mixing trough by means of conveyors. The

concrete is mixed by a spiral blade as it passes through the through to the discharge end.

Transporting

After being mixed, concrete is transported to the site in such a way to prevent segregation

and to keep the mix uniform. On small jobs two wheeled carts are used for transporting concrete.

On large projects cable cars, covey or belts, towers, and pumps may be used.

Placing
 As far as placing is concerned, the main objective is to deposit the concrete as close as

possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete can be fully

compacted.

 Placing concrete within earth mold.

e.g.: foundation concrete for a wall or column.

 Placing concrete within large earth mold or timber plank formwork.

e.g.: road slab and airfield slab.

 Placing concrete within usual from work.

e.g.: columns, beams and floors.

 Placing concrete in layers within timber or steel shutters.

e.g.: mass concrete in dam construction or construction of concrete abutment or pier.

 Placing concrete under water.

Compacting

As far as placing is concerned, the main objective is to deposit the concrete as close as

possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete can be fully

compacted. Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from

the concrete.

Hand compaction:

o Rodding
 o Ramming

o Tamping

 Compaction by vibration

 Compaction by pressure and jolting

 Compaction by spinning.

Curing

Curing is the process of maintaining a satisfactorily moisture content and favorable

temperature. Protection of concrete from moisture loss from as soon after placing as possible,

and for the first few days of hardening

Curing methods

 Spraying or ponding surface of concrete with water

 Protecting exposed surfaces from wind and sun by windbreaks and sunshades

 Covering surfaces with wet hessian and/or polythene sheets

 Applying a curing membrane, a spray-applied resin seal, to the exposed surface to

prevent moisture lost.

Finishing

Finishing operation is the last operation in making concrete.

Surface finish can be grouped as follows:

Formwork finishes – centering work

• Surface treatment
 • Applied finishes.

• Miscellaneous Finishes: Non - Slip Finish, Colored finish, Water resistant floor finish.

Testing of Fresh Concrete

1. Slump Test

The slump test is a means of assessing the consistency of fresh concrete. It is used, indirectly,

as a means of checking that the correct amount of water has been added to the mix. The test is

carried out in accordance with BS EN 12350-2, Testing fresh concrete.

How to do the Slump Test:

1) The steel slump cone is placed on a solid, impermeable, level base and filled with the

fresh concrete in three equal layers.

2) Each layer is rodded 25 times to ensure compaction. The third layer is finished off

level with the top of the cone.

3) The cone is carefully lifted up, leaving a heap of concrete that settles or ‘slumps’

slightly.

4) The upturned slump cone is placed on the base to act as a reference, and the

difference in level between its top and the top of the concrete is measured and

recorded to the nearest 10mm to give the slump of the concrete.

When the cone is removed, the slump may take one of three forms:
  True Slump, which the concrete simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape. Only

a true slump is of any use in the test.

 Shear Slump which is the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways.

 Collapse Slump wherein the concrete collapses completely. If a shear or collapse

slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated.

A collapse slump will generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high

workability mix, for which the flow test is more appropriate.

2. Flow test

The flow table test or Flow test is a method to determine consistency of fresh concrete. Flow

table test is also used to identify transportable moisture limit of solid bulk cargoes. It is used

primarily for assessing concrete that is too fluid (workable) to be measured using the slump test,

because the concrete will not retain its shape when the cone is removed.

How to do the Flow test:

1) The flow table is wetted.

2) The cone is placed in the center of the flow table and filled with fresh concrete in two

equal layers. Each layer is tamped 10 times with a tamping rod.

3) Wait 30 seconds before lifting the cone.

4) The cone is lifted, allowing the concrete to flow.

5) The flow table is then lifted up 40mm and then dropped 15 times, causing the

concrete to flow.

6) After this the diameter of flow of the concrete is measured.

3. Kelly Ball Test

 Kelly Ball Test was developed in the 1950s in the United States as a fast alternative to the

slump test. The simple and inexpensive test can be quickly performed on in-place concrete and the

results can be correlated to slump. The test apparatus consists of a 6 inch diameter, 30 pound ball

attached to a stem. The stem, which is graduated in ¼ inch increments, slides through a frame that

rests on the fresh concrete. To perform the test, the concrete to be tested is stuck off level. The ball

is released and the depth of penetration is measured to the nearest ¼ inch. At least three

measurements must be made for each sample.

Advantages of Kelly Ball Test

 The test is faster than the slump test and can be performed on in-place concrete to

obtain a direct result quickly.

 It has been claimed that the Kelly ball test provides more accurate results than the

slump test.

Disadvantages of Kelly Ball Test

 Like the slump test, the Kelly ball test is a static test.

 The test must be performed on a level concrete surface.

 The test is no longer widely used.

 Large aggregate can influence the results.

Testing of Hardened Concrete

Semi-Destructive Testing

1. Windsor probe test

The Windsor Probe test was developed in the mid-1960s in a joint effort between the New

York Port Authority and the Windsor Machine Company. It is a penetration resistance test based
on the surface hardness of a concrete element. Once established, the surface hardness is used to

estimate concrete strength.

Windsor Probe testing as an acceptable method to estimate in-situ concrete strength. It must

be correlated with known compressive strength values from concrete cores, or cylinders,

obtained from the specific concrete mix being tested. The Windsor Probe test is considered a

‘surface test’.

2. Pull Out Test

A pull-out test measures, with a special ram, the force required to pull from the concrete a

specially shaped steel rod whose enlarged end has been cast into the concrete to a depth of 3 in.

(7.6 cm). The concrete is simultaneously in tension and in shear, but the force required to pull the

concrete out can be related to its compressive strength.

The pull-out technique can thus measure quantitatively the in-situ strength of concrete when

proper correlations have been made. It has been found, over a wide range of strengths, that pull-

out strengths have a coefficient of variation comparable to that of compressive strength.

Non-Destructive Testing

1. Rebound hammer test

It consists of spring-controlled mass that slides on a plunger within tubular housing. When

the plunger is pressed the spring controlled mass rebound. It depends on surface hardness of

concrete and related to compressive strength. The rebound is read on graduated scale and the

value is designated as “rebound number” or “rebound index”.

It is used for estimating the compressive strength, Establishing the uniformity of concrete

and assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another. Though, Results are
affected by the angle of test, surface smoothness, and mix proportion as it is only suitable for

close-textured concrete.

2. Ultrasonic pulse velocity method

Ultrasonic pulse velocity method measures the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing

through the concrete. The fundamental design features of all commercially available units are

very similar, consisting of a pulse generator and a pulse receiver.

Pulses are generated by shock-exciting piezo-electric crystals, with similar crystals used in

the receiver. The time taken for the pulse to pass through the concrete is measured by electronic

measuring circuits.

3. Radioactive method

Radioactive methods of testing concrete can be used to detect the location of reinforcement,

measure density and perhaps establish whether honeycombing has occurred in structural concrete

units. Gamma radiography is increasingly accepted in England and Europe.

The equipment is quite simple and running costs are small, although the initial price can be

high. Concrete up to 18 in. (45 cm) thick can be examined without difficulty.

Quality of Concrete

The quality of Concrete must be:

1. Good workability

2. No segregation

3. No bleeding

4. High strength

5. Durability

6. Impermeability
7. Elasticity

8. Shrinkage

9. Least thermal expansion