Long-term performance of offshore wind turbines supported on monopiles and

suction caissons
Domenico Lombardi, James A. Cox, Subhamoy Bhattacharya
Bristol Laboratory for Advanced Dynamics Engineering (BLADE), Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol,
University Walk, Bristol,
email:domenico.lombardi@bristol.ac.uk, james.a.cox@bristol.ac.uk, s.bhattacharya@bristol.ac.uk

ABSTRACT: Offshore wind turbines are relatively new technology with limited prior long-term performance experience
therefore research is required to investigate the effect of the prolonged cyclic loading on the dynamic response of these very
dynamic sensitive systems. This paper describes typical experimental results gained from a series of 1-g testing carried out on a
wind turbine scale model. Three different soil profiles are considered: dry sand, saturated sand and soft clay. The tests were
carried out on wind turbine model supported by two types of foundation, namely monopile and suction caisson. The
experimental results show that the change in natural frequency of the model is strongly dependent on the soil conditions.
Specifically in sandy soils (both dry and saturated) the frequency increases with number of cycles, possibly due to a
densification of the soil next to the pile. However, tests with suction caisson show a more complex behavior. Contrastingly, tests
performed in soft clay show decreasing in natural frequency of the turbine with the cycles possibly due to a softening soil
behavior.

KEY WORDS: Offshore, Wind turbines; Cyclic loading; Physical modeling; Natural frequency; Suction caisson; Monopile.

1 INTRODUCTION
Offshore wind turbines are an essential part of the European
government strategy to achieve the target of 20% of energy
from renewable sources by 2020. There is a surge in the
construction of such facilities, yet here is no track record of
long term performance of these relatively new systems.
Offshore wind turbines are “tall top heavy” slender
structures subjected to different types of dynamic loading
arising from the severe environmental conditions in which
they are constructed. The dynamic response is dependent on
the support condition i.e. the stiffness of the foundation,
which relies on the strength on the surrounding soil. Under
moderate to high cyclic loading, soils may change their
properties and consequently the stiffness of the foundation
may vary with cycling. Therefore, there is a concern of long
stability.
This paper presents the results from a series of 1-g testing
carried on a small scale offshore wind turbine model using the
facilities of the Bristol Laboratory for Advanced Dynamics
Engineering (BLADE) at the University of Bristol. The long-
term performance and dynamic response of the physical
model was investigated for two types of foundation: monopile
and suction caisson. The model supported on monopile was
studied considering three homogeneous soil profiles: dry sand,
saturated sand and soft clay. Although for the case of suction
caisson only dry sand was considered. The paper describes the
set-up used in the tests and illustrates a set of similitude
relationships that may be considered for the interpretation of
the experimental data. Typical results are plotted in terms of
change in natural frequency of the system with number of
cycles for the different configuration.
2 FOUNDATIONS FOR OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES
Presently the majority of offshore turbines are built with
steel monopile foundations. A monopile is essentially vertical
tubular pile with a diameter in the range of 3-6 m, which is
driven or bored into the soil. However, for the new projects,
which will be situated at a greater distance from shore in
much deeper water, and with far larger turbines, monopiles
become uneconomical due to the size and complexity of
installation. To overcome this problem, alterative foundation
solutions have been proposed. These can be summarized in
the following:
• drilled concrete monopile
• concrete gravity base
• suction bucket tripod
• single suction bucket monopole
• three legged piled jacket structure
• floating tension leg platform
Each of these new solutions has the promise of reducing costs
and speeding up the rate at which new energy projects can be
constructed. However in this paper only two types of
foundations are taken into consideration. These are: monopile
which has already been described previously and suction
caisson foundations.
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of suction caisson
foundation which may be described as an upturned bucket
which is installed into the seabed via the creation of negative
pressure within the caisson skirt; this draws the caisson into
the seabed. This method of installation allows for
comparatively quick placing and removal making it cheaper
than traditional arrangements.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of suction caisson.
3 LOADING CONDITIONS FOR A TYPICAL
OFFSHORE WIND TURBINE
This section briefly describes the principal external excitations
acting on a real offshore wind turbine. The loads arise mainly
from two natural sources: wind and sea waves. However, the
interaction between these excitations and the turbine may
generate extra loading conditions, as described later in this
section. Figure 2 shows the power spectral density of the
combined action of wave and wind. It may be observed that
the predominant wave and wind forcing frequency can be
simplistically assumed as 0.1 Hz. In the same figure it may be
observed that another loading condition is represented caused
by the rotation of the blades, namely rotor frequency, which is
generally indicated with 1P. Figure 2 shows the power
spectral density of the 1P load considering a Vestas V90 3MW
as prototype.
Figure 2. Power spectral density of the main forcing
frequencies and possible design approaches.
The interaction of the wind loading with the tower causes two
different types of loading.
1. The bottom part of the tower, unobstructed by the
spinning turbine blade experiences a nearly
constant value of the wind loading. Its amplitude
can be assessed by the procedure suggested by the
Norwegian code of practice [1].
2. The top part of the tower is periodically obstructed
by the spinning of the blades is subjected to a
cyclic loading often called the blade passing effect
(indicated with 2P/3P depending on the number of
blades) or blade shadowing effect or wind
shielding effect. The power spectral density of this
load condition considering a typical prototype is
illustrated in figure 1.
In the case of monopile foundation, the total environmental
lateral load acting on the offshore wind turbine can be
modelled simplistically as a net horizontal force, P acting at a
distance y above the foundation level. Therefore P represents
the resultant of the lateral load on the tower that must be
resisted by the monopile foundation. At the pile head this
horizontal load will replaced by the same P force plus an
overturning moment M. For the suction caisson foundation, F
is the net foundation shear load acting on each caisson.
4 DIFFERENT DESIGN APPROACHES
A robust design must ensure that the natural frequency of the
wind turbine does not come close to any forcing frequencies.
A failure of this may amplify the dynamic response
compromising the overall performance. From figure 2 is clear
that the designer may select a system frequency that lies in
one of the three slots identified by the forcing frequencies.
The usual choice would lie between rotor (1P) and blade
passing frequency (3P) (so called ‘soft-stiff approach’).
However other two possible design approach are available,
these are ‘soft-soft’ when the natural frequency of the system
is less then 1P and ‘stiff-stiff’ when the frequency of the
turbine is higher than 3P. Bearing this in mind two challenges
may be observed:
1. The foundation stiffness must be estimated very
accurately from the available soil data.
2. The potential for change in foundation stiffness with
time as a result of the cyclic loading must be understood so
that the risks of the system frequency coinciding with loading
frequency can be avoided.
5 RELATIONS OF SIMILITUDE
Any experimental investigation carried out on a small scale
physical model require the development of a set of relations of
similitude for the interpretation of the model test results and in
order to scale up the findings for prediction of prototype
consequences. Furthermore every physical process can be
expressed in terms of non-dimensional groups and the
fundamental aspects of physics must be preserved in the
design of model test. These non-dimensional groups can be
deduced by thinking of the mechanisms that govern the
particular behavior of interest both at model and prototype.
When the main mechanisms are identified non-dimensional
groups can be developed by using the Buckingham’s pi
theorem [2]. More details regarding the derivation of the non-
dimensional groups described in this paper can be found in
Bhattacharya et al. [3]
5.1 Identifying relations of similitude
This work aims to study the dynamic response and long-term
performance of wind turbine scale model. The physical
modeling should be carried out considering the following
issues:
Stress field in the soil: Assuming that the changes in soil
stiffness drive the long-term performance, the average strain
next to the foundation (e.g. monopile or suction caisson) is a
governing criterion and must be preserved in order to ensure
similar stiffness degradation in both model and prototype. The
average strain in the soil can be expressed by the non- fatigue phenomena. Fatigue relates to the degradation of the
dimensional group given in equation (1): material after a large number of load cycles (>107 cycles).
The design of an offshore wind turbine must ensure that the
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ P ⎞ Fatigue Limit State (FLS) is satisfied. Equation (6) represents
⎜ 2 ⎟
=⎜ 2 ⎟
(1) the non-dimensional group required to take account of the
⎝ GD ⎠ model ⎝ GD ⎠ prototype fatigue phenomenon:

Where P is the net lateral load acting at the monopile head. G ⎛ Py ⎞ ⎛ Py ⎞

is the shear modulus of the soil. D is the diameter of the ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ σ D 2t ⎟ ⎜ σ D 2t ⎟   (6) 
monopile.
⎝ y w ⎠ model ⎝ y w ⎠ prototype
A similar group can be derived for the suction
caisson foundation, simply substituting P with F, where F is
the net horizontal load acting on each caisson, see equation Where σy is the yield stress of the monopile material.
(2).
⎛ F ⎞ ⎛ F ⎞ Flexibility of the monopile:
⎜ 2 ⎟
=⎜ 2 ⎟
(2)
⎝ GD ⎠ model ⎝ GD ⎠ prototype Pile foundations can be classified in rigid or flexible
foundation depending on the mode of failure. In rigid pile the
failure is likely to occur in the soil because the monopile
Rate of application of lateral loading: Pore pressure rotates as a rigid body. Differently the failure in flexible piles
generation and subsequent dissipation is a function of the is due to plastic hinge formation. Several methods have been
frequency of loading exerted on soil. The time, t, in which the proposed for assessing the mechanism of failure for a given
pore pressure dissipates will be directly proportional to the pile. In this paper the elastodynamic approach based on Dobry
soil permeability, kh, and inversely proportional to et al. is used [4]. A pile is considered flexible if the
characteristic length, for example diameter of monopile or dimensionless group in equation (7) is greater than 5 ensuring
caisson, D. that they fail by forming a plastic hinge.

⎛ kh ⎞ ⎛ k ⎞
      ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ h ⎟   (3) 
⎜ f D⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎛ L/ D ⎞ ⎛ L/ D ⎞
⎝ f ⎠ model ⎝ f f D ⎠ prototype ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟   (7) 
⎜ (E / E )1/ 4 ⎟ ⎜ (E / E )1/ 4 ⎟
⎝ p s ⎠ model ⎝ p s ⎠ prototype
Relative spacing of the forcing frequencies and the natural
frequencies: In order to correctly simulate the system
dynamics resulting from the interaction between the external
Where Es is the Young’s modulus of soil. EP is the equivalent
loads (i.e. forcing frequency) and the wind turbine (i.e. natural
Young’s Modulus of the pile. For a solid pile, this would be
frequency), the ratio between the forcing frequency, ff and the
effectively the Young’s Modulus of the material of the pile.
natural frequency, ff, of the turbine should be of the same
However, for tubular piles its value can be assessed by
order in the physical model and prototype.
equation (8).

⎛ ff ⎞ ⎛f ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ f ⎟⎟   (4) EI
Ep =
(π / 64)D 2
(8)
⎝ f n ⎠ model ⎝ f n ⎠ prototype

Bending strain in the pile wall thickness: the strain in the
monopile is a function of its mechanical properties and the
characteristics of the external loads. Making the assumption
that the monopiles remains elastic, the strain in the pile wall
will can be expressed by:
Where I is the second moment of area of the monopile.
A summary of the non-dimensional groups presented in this
section are listed in Table 1.

⎛ Py ⎞ ⎛ Py ⎞
6 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS
⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟   (5) The tests were carried out on a 1:100 scale offshore wind
⎜ ED 2 t w ⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠ model ⎝ ED t w ⎠ prototype turbine supported on two types of foundation: monopile and
suction caisson. The model caissons were 7.4 cm in diameter,
5.5 cm deep and spaced at 40 cm apart in two directions (see
Where E and tw are the Young’s modulus and wall thickness Figure 3). The monopile foundation consists in an aluminum
of the monopile respectively. y represents the distance hollow tube having a diameter of 2.2 cm, 1.3 mm thick and 60
between the application point of the load P and the monopile cm long. The environmental dynamic loads acting on a real
head. offshore wind turbine were applied by an electro-dynamic
Bending stress in the pile wall thickness: The stress in the actuator connected to the tower of the scale model. The rotor
monopile can be an important parameter influencing the
dynamic (1P loading) was modeled DC electric motor rotating
the blades. A typical test consists of the application of the
cyclic loading for a certain number of cycles, and then
measuring the frequency by a free vibration test. In the free
vibration test the actuator was disconnected from the tower,
the blade rotation was ceased and the tower was given a small
amplitude vibration and the acceleration of the system
recorded. Tests on the model supported on monopile were
carried out for three different homogeneous soil profiles: dry
sand, saturated sand and soft clay. Leighton Buzzard sand
fraction E was used as non-cohesive soil and Speswhite
Kaolin clay was used as cohesive soil.

Table 1. Summary of non-dimensional groups developed for

physical modeling
Figure 3. Physical model of a small scale offshore wind
Physical mechanism Non-dimensional
turbine supported on suction caisson
group
Stress field in the soil ⎛ P ⎞  7.1 Turbine supported on monopile:
⎜ 2 ⎟
considering monopile ⎝ GD ⎠ Figure 4 shows typical results obtained from the tests carried
  out considering the turbine supported on monopile. The
Stress field in the soil ⎛ F ⎞  numbers of cycles are plotted on the horizontal axis, whereas
considering suction caisson ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ GD ⎠ the vertical axis plots the ratio between the frequency of the
model after N cycles and the initial value of frequency
Rate of application of ⎛ kh ⎞ measured before the loading. From Figure 4 it may be
lateral loading to the ⎜ ⎟ observed that, tests carried out in dry and saturated sands
⎜ f D⎟
model* ⎝ f ⎠ show an increase in natural frequency of the model with the
number of cycles. Contrarily in soft clay the natural frequency
Relative spacing of the ⎛ ff ⎞ of the system decreases with the number of cycles. More
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ results regarding the behaviour of the model in soft clay for
forcing frequencies and the ⎝ fn ⎠
natural frequencies* different stress field in the soil can be found in Lombardi et al.
[6].
Bending strain in the pile ⎛ Py ⎞ 
⎜ ⎟
wall thickness ⎜ ED 2t w ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 
Stress level in the pile wall ⎛ Py ⎞  
⎜ ⎟
thickness ⎜ σ D 2t ⎟
⎝ y w⎠
 
⎛ L/D ⎞
Flexibility of the monopile ⎜ ⎟
⎜ (E / E )1 / 4 ⎟
⎝ p s ⎠
* non-dimensional group applicable for both monopiles and
suction caisson foundations.

Similar tests on the model supported by suction caisson were
performed in dry sand using Leighton Buzzard fraction E and
a mixture of Leighton Buzzard fraction E and B.
7 TYPICAL RESULTS
This section illustrates typical results obtained from the
experimental investigation. The interpretation of the
experimental results based on the scaling laws can be found in
Bhattacharya et al. [5]
Figure 4. Typical results obtained for model turbine supported
on monopile considering three different soil profile: saturated
and dry sand and soft clay.
7.2 Turbine supported on suction caissons:
Figure 5 shows typical results obtained for turbine founded by
suction caissons. The graph plots the number of cycles
(horizontal axis) against the change in frequency of the model
with respect to its initial value (vertical axis). Solid circle
symbols are used to indicate data obtained considering
Leighton Buzzard fraction E only. Diamond symbols indicate
results obtained when for mixture between Leighton Buzzard
fraction E and B. As it may be observed from Figure 5 the
natural frequency of the model initially increases with cycling
(up to 400,000 cycles) then decreases and stabilises to a wind turbines, International Journal of Physical Modelling in
Geotechnics, Vol. 11, No.1. 2011
certain value. [4] Dobry, R., Vicente, E., O’Rourke, M. J., & Rosset, J. M. Horizontal
stiffness and damping of single piles. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 108, No.3 , 439–459. 1982.
[5] Bhattacharya, S. and Adhikari, S. Experimental validation of soil–
structure interaction of offshore windturbines. Soil Dyn. Earthquake
Eng (2011), In Press. doi:10.1016/j.soildyn.2011.01.004
[6] Lombardi, D., Bhattacharya, S. and Muir Wood, D. Monopile
foundations for offshore wind turbines in cohesive soil: response to
long-term cyclic loading, Géotechnique (Submitted)
[7] Cox, J. A., & Jones, C. Long-Term Performance of Suction Caisson
Supported Offshore Wind Turbines. Master Thesis, University of
Bristol, 2010.

Figure 5. Typical results obtained for model turbine supported

on suction caisson in dry sand.

8 CONCLUSION
The paper shows that small scale experimental studies can be
carried out to study complex dynamic soil-structure
interaction problems where there is no prior information. The
long term performance of offshore wind turbines has been
studied because there is a real concern regarding the effect on
performance of changes in the foundation stiffness. Non-
dimensional groups have been illustrated for the interpretation
of the model test results and in order to scale up the findings
for prediction of prototype consequences.
Experimental results show that when the model is founded
on monopile the frequency of the system may decrease or
increase depending on the soil conditions. In the case of dry
and saturated sand (Leighton Buzzard Fraction E was used in
these tests) the natural frequency of the model increases with
cycling (see Figure 4). These results may be justified
considering a densification of the soil adjacent to the
monopile due to the strains induced by the foundation
movement. Differently, in soft clay (Speswhite Kaolin clay)
the natural frequency of the system decreases with cycling.
This response may be explaining considering the softening of
the saturated clay due to the cyclic loading which turns in
reducing the foundation stiffness of the system.
Tests carried out on suction caissons show that the pattern
of the change in frequency with the loading is more complex.
Two different sandy soil profiles were considered: Leighton
Buzzard Fraction E and mixture Leighton Buzzard Fraction E-
B. The increase and subsequent decrease in natural frequency
can be attributed to the sand near the caisson densifying and
dilating. This non-monotonous behavior is so far unclassified
however theories have been proposed [7].

REFERENCES
[1] DNV Offshore standard: design of offshore wind turbine structures,
DNV-OS-J101, Det Norske Veritas, 2007.
[2] Buckingham, E. On physically similar systems: illustrating the use of
dimensional analysis, Phys. Rev. 4, 345-376. 1914.
[3] Bhattacharya, S, Lombardi, D. & Muir Wood, D. Similitude
relationships of physical modelling of monopile-supported offshore