Energy absorption: 𝐸𝑖𝑛 = 1 − 𝛼 𝑆0 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 1 − 𝛼 𝑆0 𝜋𝑅 2 = 1.

2247 ∙ 1011 𝑊
2
Boltzmann’s law: 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜍𝑇 4 𝐴𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑕 = 𝜍𝑇 4 4𝜋𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡 11
𝑕 = 1.2247 ∙ 10 𝑊

%18 𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 − %18 𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.208%−0.210%

Water isotopes: 𝛿 18 𝑂 = %18 𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
= 0.210%
= −0.01 = −1%

ln 2 ∆𝑇 𝑊
Doubling time: 𝑇2 = Heat flow: 𝑄 = −𝐴 Wing load: 𝑊𝐿 =
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡 𝑕 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆

𝑦 𝑦 1
Combustion: 𝐶𝑥 𝐻𝑦 + 𝑥 + 4 𝑂2 → 𝑥𝐶𝑂2 + 2 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 Power: 𝑃 = 𝐷 ∙ 𝑉 = 2 𝜌𝑉 3 𝑆𝐶𝐷

𝐶𝐿2
Fischer-Tropsch: (2𝑛 + 1)𝐻2 + 𝑛𝐶𝑂 → 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 + 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 Drag coefficient: 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷0 +
𝜋𝐴𝑒

𝑊
Photosynthesis: 6𝐶𝑂2 + 6𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 → 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 + 6𝑂2 Lift coefficient: 𝐶𝐿 = 1
𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆
2

2𝑕𝑐 2 1 ∞
Plank’s radiation: 𝐸 𝜆, 𝑇 = 𝜆5 𝑕𝑐 Boltzmann’s law: 𝐸 𝑇 = 0
𝐸 𝜆, 𝑇 𝑑𝜆 = 𝜍𝑇 4 = 𝜀𝜍𝑇𝑠4
𝑒 𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1

𝑏2
Solar power: 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝐴𝑓 = 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝜋𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑕 2 = 1.74 × 1015 Aspect ratio: 𝐴= 𝑆

𝑃 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 2
Intensity: 𝑠𝑢𝑛
𝐼𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 ,𝑎𝑣 = 4𝜋𝑅 2 = 4
= 342 𝑊/𝑚2 Sun hours: 𝑠𝑕 = 15 cos−1 − tan 𝛿 tan 𝜑

2𝜋𝑅𝑁 𝑈 Ω𝑅 𝐂𝐃
Tip speed: 𝑈 = Ω𝑅 = 60
Tip speed ratio: 𝜆=𝑉= 𝑉 𝐂𝐋 𝐦𝐢𝐧
→ 𝐶𝐿 = 𝐶𝐷0 𝜋𝐴𝑒

1
Wind power: 𝑃 = 𝐸𝑘𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝜌𝐴𝑉 3 Annual electricity production: 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑉𝑚3 𝐴𝑡 𝑇 𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑕 𝐾 = 3.2

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝 𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 1 360

Air mass: 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝 𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒
= cos 𝜃 𝛿 = −23.45 sin 365
(284 + 𝑛)
𝑖

Incidence angle: cos 𝜃𝑖 = cos 𝜑 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝜑 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + cos 𝛿 sin 𝜔 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾 +
sin 𝛿 (sin 𝜑 cos 𝛽 − cos 𝜑 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾) for 𝜷 = 𝟎: cos 𝜃𝑖 = cos 𝜑 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 + sin 𝛿 sin 𝜑

Conduction Convection
𝑑𝑇
Heat flow 𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑄 = 𝑕𝐴∆𝑇
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 1
Thermal resistance 𝑅= 𝑅=
𝑘 𝑕
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑘
Thermal diffusivity 𝛼= =
𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝜌𝑐𝑝
Constants 𝑘 = thermal conductivity 𝑕 = local heat transfer coefficient

Sun’s black body temp.: 𝑇 = 5777 𝐾 Sun’s diameter: 𝑑𝑠 = 1.4 ∙ 106 𝑘𝑚

Plank’s constant: 𝑕 = 6.626 ∙ 10−34 𝐽𝑠 Speed of light: 𝑐 = 2.998 ∙ 108 𝑚 𝑠

𝐽
Boltzmann’s constant: 𝑘 = 1.381 ∙ 10−23 𝐾 Stefan’s constant: 𝜍 = 5.670 ∙ 10−8 𝑊
𝑚2 𝐾 4

Solar intensity: 𝑆0 = 𝐼𝑠𝑢𝑛 = 1366 𝑊 Earth’s radius: 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑕 = 6371 𝑘𝑚

𝑚2

Earth’s rotation: 𝜔 = 15 ° 𝑕𝑟 Earth’s albedo: 𝛼 = 30% = 0.30

𝑥
Equilibrium temperature: 𝑇𝑒𝑞 = −17.9℃ kWh/y to kW: 𝐸 = 365∙24

From/to Chemical Electrical Heat Light Mechanical

Chemical Reaction Battery/fuel cell Fire Fire Engine/rocket
Electrical Battery Transformer Radiator Light bulb Electric engine
Heat Gasification Thermocouple Heat exchanger Fire Steam engine
Light Photosynthesis Solar cell Radiation Prisma Solar sail
Mechanical Heat cell Dynamo/Generator Friction Flint spark Gearbox