GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Chapter 2
Atoms, Molecules,
and Ions

Dr. Huỳnh Kỳ Phương Hạ

Office: 112 B2 Building
Phone: 38650484
Email: hkpha@hcmut.edu.vn
 Atomic Weights

The Atomic Mass Scale

• 1H weighs 1.6735 x 10-24 g and 16O 2.6560 x 10-23 g.
• We define: mass of 12C = exactly 12 amu.
• Using atomic mass units:
1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g
1 g = 6.02214 x 1023 amu
 Atomic Number, Mass Number,
and Isotopes
• Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus.
• Mass number (A) = total number of nucleons in the
nucleus (i.e., protons and neutrons).
• By convention, for element X, we write ZAX.
• Isotopes have the same Z but different A.
• We find Z on the periodic table.
 Class Practice Problem

• How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an

atom of 197Au?

• Hydrogen has three isotopes, with mass numbers 1, 2,

and 3. Write the complete chemical symbol for each of
them.
 Atomic Weights
Average Atomic Masses

• Relative atomic mass: average masses of isotopes:

– Naturally occurring C: 98.892 % 12C + 1.108 % 13C.
• Average mass of C:
• (0.98892)(12 amu) + (0.0108)(13.00335) = 12.011 amu.

• Atomic weight (AW) is also known as average atomic

mass (atomic weight).
• Atomic weights are listed on the periodic table.
 Arrangement of the Periodic
Table
• The Periodic Table is used to organize the 114 elements
in a meaningful way.
• As a consequence of this organization, there are periodic
properties associated with the periodic table.
 IA II A III B IV B VB VI B VII B VIII B IB II B III A IV A VA VI A VII A VIII A
1 1 2
1 H H He
1.008 1.008 4.0026
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.939 9.0122 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.183
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.312 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.064 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.102 40.08 44.956 47.89 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.847 58.932 58.71 63.54 65.37 69.72 72.59 74.922 78.96 79.909 83.8
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 * 98 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.9 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.61 126.9 131.29
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba **La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.29 204.38 207.2 208.98 * 209 * 210 * 222
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116
7 Fr Ra ***Ac Rf Ha Sg Ns Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub Uut Uuq Uup Uuh
* 223 226.03 227.03 * 261 * 262 * 263 * 262 * 265 * 268 * 269 * 272 * 277 *284 *285 *288 *292
Based on symbols used by ACS S.M.Condren 2003
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
* Designates that **Lanthanum Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
all isotopes are Series 140.12 140.91 144.24 * 145 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.51 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
radioactive 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
*** Actinium Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Series 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 * 244 * 243 * 247 * 247 * 251 * 252 * 257 * 258 * 259 * 260
The Periodic Table
 Reading the Periodic Table
• Columns in the periodic table are called groups
(numbered from 1A to 8A or 1 to 18).
• Rows in the periodic table are called periods.
• Metals are located on the left hand side of the periodic
table (most of the elements are metals).
• Non-metals are located in the top right hand side of the
periodic table.
• Elements with properties similar to both metals and non-
metals are called metalloids and are located at the
interface between the metals and non-metals.
 Properties of the Periodic
Table
• Some of the groups in the periodic table are given special
names.
• These names indicate the similarities between group
members:
Group 1A: Alkali metals.
Group 2A: Alkaline earth metals.
Group 6A: Chalcogens.
Group 7A: Halogens.
Group 8A: Noble gases.
 Trends in the
Periodic Table
• atomic radius
• ionic radius
• ionization energy
• electron affinity

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Atomic Radius
• decrease left to right across a period
– as nuclear charge increases, number of
electrons increase; however, the nucleus acts as
a unit charge while the electrons act
independently, pulling electrons towards the
nucleus, decreasing size

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Atomic Radius
• increase top to bottom down a group
– each additional electron “shell” shields the
outer electrons from the nuclear charge

Zeff = Z - S
where Zeff => effective nuclear charge
Z => nuclear charge, atomic number
S => shielding constant
Dr. S. M. Condren
 Atomic Radius
• increases from upper right corner to the
lower left corner

Dr. S. M. Condren
Atomic Radius vs. Atomic Number

Dr. S. M. Condren
Atomic Radius

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Ionic Radius
• same trends as for atomic radius
• positive ions smaller than atom
• negative ions larger than atom

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Ionic Radius
Isoelectronic Series
• series of negative ions, noble gas atom, and
positive ions with the same electronic
confiuration
• size decreases as “positive charge” of the
nucleus increases

Dr. S. M. Condren
Ge is a semiconductor. If half of the Ge
atoms of a sample of Ge are replaced with
Ga atoms, with what element should the
other half of the Ga atoms be replaced in
order for this new compound to be
isoelectronic with Ge?

Sn, As, Se

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Ionization Energy
• energy necessary to remove an electron to
form a positive ion
• low value for metals, electrons easily
removed
• high value for non-metals, electrons
difficult to remove
• increases from lower left corner of periodic
table to the upper right corner
Dr. S. M. Condren
 Ionization Energies
first ionization energy
• energy to remove first electron from an
atom
second ionization energy
• energy to remove second electron from a +1
ion
etc.
Dr. S. M. Condren
Ionization Energy vs. Atomic Number

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Electron Affinity
• energy released when an electron is added
to an atom
• same trends as ionization energy, increases
from lower left corner to the upper right
corner
• metals have low “EA”
• nonmetals have high “EA”

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Magnetism
• Result of the spin of electrons
• diamagnetism - no unpaired electrons
• paramagnetism - one or more unpaired
electrons
• ferromagentism - case of paramagnetism
where the substance retains its magnetism

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Magnetism

Without applied field Without applied field

With applied field With applied field

Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism

Dr. S. M. Condren
 Transition Metals
• After Ar the d orbitals begin to fill.
• After the 3d orbitals are full, the 4p orbitals begins to fill.
• Transition metals: elements in which the d electrons are
the valence electrons.
 Lanthanides and Actinides
• From Cs onwards the 4f orbitals begin to fill.
• Note: La: [Xe]6s25d14f0
• Elements Ce - Lu have the 4f orbitals filled and are
called lanthanides or rare earth elements.
• Elements Th - Lr have the 5f orbitals filled and are
called actinides.
• Most actinides are not found in nature.
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
• Molecules are assemblies of two or more atoms bonded
together.
• Each molecule has a chemical formula.
• The chemical formula indicates
– which atoms are found in the molecule, and
– in what proportion they are found.
• Compounds formed from molecules are molecular
compounds.
• Molecules that contain two atoms of the same element
bonded together are called diatomic molecules.
Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
Example of Diatomic Molecules
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
Molecular and Empirical Formulas
• Molecular formulas
– give the actual numbers and types of atoms in a
molecule.
– Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, H2O2, O2, O3, and
C2H4.
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
• Most molecular substances that we will study in this
class contain only nonmetals.
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
Molecular and Empirical Formulas
• Empirical formulas
– give the relative numbers and types of atoms in a
molecule.
– That is, they give the lowest whole number ratio of
atoms in a molecule.
– Examples: H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, HO, CH2.
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
• Molecular and empirical formulas do not show how
atoms are arranged when bonded together.
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
Picturing Molecules
• Molecules occupy three dimensional space.
• However, we often represent them in two dimensions.
• The structural formula gives the connectivity between
individual atoms in the molecule.
• The structural formula may or may not be used to show
the three dimensional shape of the molecule.
• If the structural formula does show the shape of the
molecule, then either a perspective drawing, ball-and-
stick model, or space-filling model is used.
 Molecules and Molecular
Compounds
Representing Structure in Molecules

Accurately represents
the angles at which
molecules are attached.
 Class Practice Exercise
The structural formula of propane and butane is

H H H H H H H

H C C C H H C C C C H

H H H H H H H
What is the chemical and empirical formula for these
molecules?
 Ions and Ionic Compounds
• When an atom or molecule loses electrons, it becomes
positively charged.
– For example, when Na loses an electron it becomes Na+.
• Positively charged ions are called cations.
• When an atom or molecule gains electrons, it becomes
negatively charged.
• For example when Cl gains an electron it becomes Cl-.
• Negatively charged ions are called anions.
• An atom or molecule can lose more than one electron.
• When molecules loose electrons, polyatomic ions are formed.
 Ions and Ionic Compounds
• In general: metal atoms tend to lose electrons to become
cations; nonmetal ions tend to gain electrons to form
anions.
Predicting Ionic Charge
• The number of electrons an atom loses is related to its
position on the periodic table.
Ions and Ionic Compounds
Predicting Ionic Charge
 Ions and Ionic Compounds
Element Bonding
• The majority of chemistry involves the transfer of
electrons between species.
Example:
– To form NaCl, the neutral sodium atom, Na, must lose an
electron to become a cation: Na+.
– The electron cannot be lost entirely, so it is transferred to a
chlorine atom, Cl, which then becomes an anion: Cl-.
– The Na+ and Cl- ions are attracted to form an ionic NaCl lattice
which crystallizes.
– NaCl is an example of an Ionic compound (consisting of
positive and negatively charged atoms)
 Ions and Ionic Compounds

Crystal Structure
of NaCl
 Ions and Ionic Compounds
Ionic Compounds
• Important: note that there are no easily identified NaCl
molecules in the ionic lattice. Therefore, we cannot use
molecular formulas to describe ionic substances.
• Writing the empirical formulas for ionic compounds:
• you need to know the ions of which it is composed.
• The formula must reflect the electrical neutrality of the
compound
• the total positive charge must equal the total negative charge
• Example: Consider the formation of Mg3N2:
• Mg loses two electrons to become Mg2+;
• Nitrogen gains three electrons to become N3-.
• For a neutral species, the number of electrons lost and gained
must be equal.
 Ions and Ionic Compounds
Writing the Empirical Formula
• However, Mg can only lose electrons in twos and N can
only accept electrons in threes.
• Therefore, Mg needs to lose 6 electrons (2  3) and N
gain those 6 electrons (3  2).
• I.e., 3Mg atoms need to form 3Mg2+ ions (total 3  2+
charges) and 2 N atoms need to form 2N3- ions (total 2 
3- charges).
• Therefore, the formula is Mg3N2.
 Controversy in Naming Inorganic/Organic
Compounds
Organic compounds contain carbon. Inorganic compounds don't.
This definition is often given but is no help at all. What do we make of carbon dioxide, sodium
cyanide, baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), ...?
Organic compounds contain carbon-hydrogen bonds. Inorganic compounds don't.
This is a much better definition, allowing us to call sodium acetylide "organic" but calcium carbide
"inorganic," but it doesn't always work.
Inorganic compounds contain metal atoms. Organic compounds don't.
This doesn't really work any too well either. Even leaving the huge field of organometallic chemistry
out of the running, are we really going to call soap (sodium salts of fatty acids) or the lipid bilayers
forming cell membranes (again, salts of long-chain organic acids) "inorganic"???
An organic compound is whatever an organic chemist says it is; an inorganic compound
is whatever an inorganic chemist says it is.

Reproduced from http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/dec2000/975719013.Ch.r.html

 Naming Inorganic Compounds
• Naming of compounds, nomenclature, is divided into
organic compounds (those containing C, usually in
combination with hydrogen) and inorganic compounds
(the rest of the periodic table).
• Naming Ionic Compounds
• Based on the names of the ions of which they are
composed.
• Example, NaCl is called sodium chloride (based on Na+ and
Cl- ions).
• The cation is written first and the anion is written last.
• Ions may be monoatomic or polyatomic.
• Vast majority of monoatomic cations are made from metals.
• These ions take the name of the element itself.
 Naming Inorganic Cations
• Cations formed from a metal have the same name as the
metal.
• Example: Na+ = sodium ion.
• If the metal can form more than one cation, then the
charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses in
the name.
• Examples: Cu+ = copper(I); Cu2+ = copper(II) (Page 61).
• Most of the elements that can form more than one cation are the
• transition metals (3B to 2B).
• Or placing ous or ic at the end of the name to indicate the lower
• and higher, respectively, charged cation.
• Cations formed from non-metals (end in -ium).
• Example: NH4+ ammonium ion.
Some Common Cations
 Naming Inorganic Anions
• Monoatomic anions (with only one atom) are named by
dropping the ending of the name and replacing with
-ide.
• Example: Cl- is chloride ion.
• Polyatomic anions (with many atoms) containing oxygen
end in -ate or -ite. (The one with more oxygen is called
-ate.)
• Examples: NO3- is nitrate, NO2- is nitrite.
• (Exceptions: hydroxide (OH-), cyanide (CN-), peroxide (O22-).)
 Naming Polyatomic Inorganic ions
• Polyatomic anions containing oxygen with more than two
members in the series are named as follows (in order of
decreasing oxygen):
• per-….-ate
• -ate
• -ite
• hypo-….-ite
• Examples;
• ClO4- perchlorate ion, ClO3- chlorate, ClO2- chlorite,
ClO- hypochlorite.
Road Map to Naming Monoatomic
and Polyatomic Anions
 Naming Inorganic Compounds

• Polyatomic anions containing oxygen with additional

hydrogens are named by adding hydrogen or bi- (one H),
dihydrogen (two H), etc., to the name as follows:

CO32- is the carbonate anion

HCO3- is the hydrogen carbonate (or bicarbonate) anion.
H2PO4- is the dihydrogen phosphate anion.
Some Common Anions
 Names and Formulas for
Acids

• The names of acids are related to the names of anions.

• Acids containing anions whose names end in:
-ide becomes hydro-….-ic acid;
-ate becomes -ic acid;
-ite becomes -ous acid.
 Names and Formulas of Binary
Molecular Compounds
• Binary molecular compounds have two elements.
• The most metallic element is usually written first (i.e., the
one to the farthest left on the periodic table). Exception:
NH3.
• If both elements are in the same group, the lower one is
written first.
• Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms.
Common Numeric Prefixes