Introduction: What Is Cancer?

Throughout our lives, healthy cells in our bodies divide and replace themselves in a controlled
fashion. Cancer starts when a cell is somehow altered so that it multiplies out of control. A tumour is
a mass composed of a cluster of such abnormal cells.

Most cancers form tumours, but not all tumours are cancerous.

Benign, or noncancerous, tumours do not spread to other parts of the body, and do not create new
tumours. Malignant, or cancerous, tumours crowd out healthy cells, interfere with body functions,
and draw nutrients from body tissues.

Cancers continue to grow and spread by direct extension or through a process called metastasis,
whereby the malignant cells travel through the lymphatic or blood vessels -- eventually forming new
tumours in other parts of the body.

Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells 2

Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways that allow them to grow out of control and become
invasive. One important difference is that cancer cells are less specialized than normal cells. That is,
whereas normal cells mature into very distinct cell types with specific functions, cancer cells do not.
This is one reason that, unlike normal cells, cancer cells continue to divide without stopping.
In addition, cancer cells are able to ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or that begin
a process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis, which the body uses to get rid of unneeded
cells.

Cancer cells may be able to influence the normal cells, molecules, and blood vessels that surround and
feed a tumour—an area known as the microenvironment. For instance, cancer cells can induce nearby
normal cells to form blood vessels that supply tumours with oxygen and nutrients, which they need
to grow. These blood vessels also remove waste products from tumours.

Cancer cells are also often able to evade the immune system, a network of organs, tissues, and
specialized cells that protects the body from infections and other conditions. Although the immune
system normally removes damaged or abnormal cells from the body, some cancer cells are able to
“hide” from the immune system.

Tumours can also use the immune system to stay alive and grow. For example, with the help of certain
immune system cells that normally prevent a runaway immune response, cancer cells can actually
keep the immune system from killing cancer cells.

How Cancer Arises

Cancer is caused by certain changes to genes, the basic physical units of inheritance. Genes are
arranged in long strands of tightly packed DNA called chromosomes.

1 https://www.webmd.com/cancer/understanding-cancer-basics

2 https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer
Cancer is a genetic disease—that is, it is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells
function, especially how they grow and divide.

Genetic changes that cause cancer can be inherited from our parents. They can also arise during a
person’s lifetime as a result of errors that occur as cells divide or because of damage to DNA caused
by certain environmental exposures. Cancer-causing environmental exposures include substances,
such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke, and radiation, such as ultraviolet rays from the sun.
(Our Cancer Causes and Prevention section has more information.)

Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. As the cancer continues to grow,
additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, different cells may have different genetic
changes.

In general, cancer cells have more genetic changes, such as mutations in DNA, than normal cells. Some
of these changes may have nothing to do with the cancer; they may be the result of the cancer, rather
than its cause.

"Drivers" of Cancer

The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes—proto-
oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called
“drivers” of cancer.

Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. However, when these genes are
altered in certain ways or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-causing genes (or
oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and survive when they should not.

Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. Cells with certain
alterations in tumor suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner.
DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. Cells with mutations in these genes tend to
develop additional mutations in other genes. Together, these mutations may cause the cells to
become cancerous.

As scientists have learned more about the molecular changes that lead to cancer, they have found
that certain mutations commonly occur in many types of cancer. Because of this, cancers are
sometimes characterized by the types of genetic alterations that are believed to be driving them, not
just by where they develop in the body and how the cancer cells look under the microscope.

Types of Cancer

There are more than 100 types of cancer. Types of cancer are usually named for the organs or tissues
where the cancers form. For example, lung cancer starts in cells of the lung, and brain cancer starts in
cells of the brain. Cancers also may be described by the type of cell that formed them, such as an
epithelial cell or a squamous cell.

You can search NCI’s website for information on specific types of cancer based on the cancer’s location
in the body or by using our A to Z List of Cancers. We also have collections of information on childhood
cancers and cancers in adolescents and young adults.

Here are some categories of cancers that begin in specific types of cells:

Carcinoma

Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed by epithelial cells, which are the
cells that cover the inside and outside surfaces of the body. There are many types of epithelial cells,
which often have a column-like shape when viewed under a microscope.

Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell types have specific names:

Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with
this type of epithelial cell are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the breast, colon,
and prostate are adenocarcinomas.
Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or basal (base) layer of the epidermis, which
is a person’s outer layer of skin.

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in squamous cells, which are epithelial cells that lie
just beneath the outer surface of the skin. Squamous cells also line many other organs, including the
stomach, intestines, lungs, bladder, and kidneys. Squamous cells look flat, like fish scales, when viewed
under a microscope. Squamous cell carcinomas are sometimes called epidermoid carcinomas.
Transitional cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in a type of epithelial tissue called transitional
epithelium, or urothelium. This tissue, which is made up of many layers of epithelial cells that can get
bigger and smaller, is found in the linings of the bladder, ureters, and part of the kidneys (renal pelvis),
and a few other organs. Some cancers of the bladder, ureters, and kidneys are transitional cell
carcinomas.

Sarcoma

Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymph
vessels, and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and ligaments). Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer
of bone. The most common types of soft tissue sarcoma are leiomyosarcoma, Kaposi
sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, liposarcoma, and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans.
Leukemia

Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow are called leukemias. These cancers
do not form solid tumours. Instead, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (leukemia cells and
leukemic blast cells) build up in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out normal blood cells. The low
level of normal blood cells can make it harder for the body to get oxygen to its tissues, control
bleeding, or fight infections.

There are four common types of leukemia, which are grouped based on how quickly the disease gets
worse (acute or chronic) and on the type of blood cell the cancer starts in (lymphoblastic or myeloid).

Lymphoma

Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting white
blood cells that are part of the immune system. In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph
nodes and lymph vessels, as well as in other organs of the body.

There are two main types of lymphoma:

Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal lymphocytes that are called Reed-
Sternberg cells. These cells usually form from B cells.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes. The cancers can
grow quickly or slowly and can form from B cells or T cells.

Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma is cancer that begins in plasma cells, another type of immune cell. The abnormal
plasma cells, called myeloma cells, build up in the bone marrow and form tumours in bones all through
the body. Multiple myeloma is also called plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease.

Melanoma

Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that become melanocytes, which are specialized cells that
make melanin (the pigment that gives skin its color). Most melanomas form on the skin, but
melanomas can also form in other pigmented tissues, such as the eye.

Brain and Spinal Cord Tumours

There are different types of brain and spinal cord tumours. These tumours are named based on the
type of cell in which they formed and where the tumor first formed in the central nervous system. For
example, an astrocytic tumor begins in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes, which help
keep nerve cells healthy. Brain tumours can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).

Other Types of Tumours

Germ Cell Tumours

Germ cell tumours are a type of tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to sperm or eggs. These
tumours can occur almost anywhere in the body and can be either benign or malignant.

Neuroendocrine Tumours

Neuroendocrine tumours form from cells that release hormones into the blood in response to a signal
from the nervous system. These tumours, which may make higher-than-normal amounts of hormones,
can cause many different symptoms. Neuroendocrine tumours may be benign or malignant.
Carcinoid Tumours

Carcinoid tumours are a type of neuroendocrine tumor. They are slow-growing tumours that are
usually found in the gastrointestinal system (most often in the rectum and small intestine). Carcinoid
tumours may spread to the liver or other sites in the body, and they may secrete substances such as
serotonin or prostaglandins, causing carcinoid syndrome.

Below given are some hyperlinks which describe about the different types of cancer. 3 The page was
last reviewed on 2018 May 7.

Content source: Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention

Kinds of Cancer

Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer risk factors include smoking, genetic mutations, and exposure to certain chemicals.

Breast Cancer

Getting mammograms regularly can lower the risk of dying from breast cancer. Talk to your doctor
about when to start and how often to get a screening mammogram.

Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is highly preventable in most Western countries because screening tests and a vaccine
to prevent human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are available.

Colorectal Cancer

If you are 50 years old or older, get screened. Screening tests can help prevent colorectal cancer or
find it early, when treatment works best.

Gynecologic Cancers

Five main types of cancer affect a woman’s reproductive organs: cervical, ovarian, uterine, vaginal,
and vulvar. As a group, they are referred to as gynecologic cancers.

Head and Neck Cancers

Cancers of the head and neck include cancers that start in several places in the head and throat, not
including brain cancers or cancers of the eye.

Kidney Cancer

Smoking is the most important risk factor for kidney and renal pelvis cancers. To lower your risk, don’t
smoke, or quit if you do.

Leukemia

3 https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/kinds.htm
Leukemia is a cancer of the bone marrow and blood (white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets).
Leukemia is the most common cancer among children and teens.

Liver Cancer

To lower your risk for liver cancer, get vaccinated against Hepatitis B, get tested for Hepatitis C, and
avoid drinking too much alcohol.

Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer death in the United States. The most important thing you
can do to lower your lung cancer risk is to quit smoking and avoid secondhand smoke.

Lymphoma
Lymphoma is a general term for cancers that start in the lymph system. The two main kinds of
lymphoma are Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Myeloma

Myeloma is a cancer of the plasma cells. In myeloma, the cells grow too much, forming a mass or
tumor in the bone marrow.

Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer causes more deaths than any other cancer of the female reproductive system. But
when ovarian cancer is found early, treatment works best.

Prostate Cancer

Most prostate cancers grow slowly and don’t cause any health problems in men who have them. Learn
more and talk to your doctor before you decide to get tested or treated for prostate cancer.

Skin Cancer

Skin cancer is the most common cancer in the United States. To lower your skin cancer risk, protect
your skin from the sun and avoid indoor tanning.

Thyroid Cancer

To lower the risk of thyroid cancer, avoid unnecessary exposure to radiation, including radiation from
medical imaging procedures, especially in young children and around the head and neck.

Uterine Cancer

Uterine cancer is the most common cancer of the female reproductive system.

Vaginal and Vulvar Cancers

Vaginal and vulvar cancers are rare, but all women are at risk for these cancers.

CANCER DATASETS FROM INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION ON CANCER REPORTING

The ICCR was founded by major pathology organizations from around the world to produce
internationally standardized and evidence based datasets for the pathology reporting of cancer. Its
goal is to improve cancer patient outcomes worldwide and to advance international benchmarking in
cancer management.

The ICCR datasets are categorised into the following 12 anatomical sites and are available at
http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets

Female Reproductive Organs http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets/published-datasets/female-

reproductive-organs

Urinary/Male Genital http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets/published-datasets/urinary-male-

genital

Thorax http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets/published-datasets/thorax

Skin http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets/published-datasets/skin

Head and Neck http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets/published-datasets/head-neck

Soft Tissues and Bone Have no completed datasets but have collected datasets

Endocrine Organs Have no completed datasets but have collected datasets

Central Nervous System http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets/published-datasets/central-nervous-

system

Breast Have no completed datasets but have collected datasets

Digestive Tract http://www.iccr-cancer.org/datasets/published-datasets/digestive-tract

Haemopoietic Have no completed datasets but have collected datasets

Ophthalmic Have no completed datasets but have collected datasets